Background
Methods
Study setting and population
Sampling
Measurement tool
Interviews
Sample size
Statistical analysis
n | % | |
---|---|---|
Sex | ||
Male | 1082 | 57.1 |
Female | 813 | 42.9 |
Age groups | ||
40–49 | 1279 | 67.5 |
50–59 | 427 | 22.5 |
60+ | 189 | 10.0 |
Ethnicity | ||
Malay | 925 | 48.8 |
Chinese | 754 | 39.8 |
Indian | 162 | 8.5 |
Others | 54 | 2.8 |
Highest Level of Education | ||
No formal education | 28 | 1.5 |
Primary education | 162 | 8.6 |
Secondary education | 1052 | 55.5 |
Tertiary education | 653 | 34.5 |
Marital Status | ||
Married | 1663 | 87.8 |
Not married | 231 | 12.2 |
Household ownership of motorised transport | ||
No | 89 | 4.7 |
Yes, one | 1043 | 55.0 |
Yes, more than one | 763 | 40.3 |
Smoking | ||
Current smoker | 355 | 18.7 |
Ex-smoker | 115 | 6.1 |
Never smoked | 1425 | 75.2 |
Access to doctors | ||
Easy | 1814 | 95.8 |
Difficult | 80 | 4.2 |
Experience of cancer (self, family or friend) | ||
Yes | 381 | 20.1 |
No | 1511 | 79.9 |
Self-reported health | ||
Very good | 110 | 5.8 |
Good | 1262 | 66.6 |
Fair | 481 | 25.4 |
Poor | 40 | 2.1 |
Very poor | 2 | 0.1 |
Results
Socio-demographics
Signs and symptoms awareness
Yes (n) prompted | % | Yes (n) unprompted | % | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Signs and symptoms | ||||
Unexplained lump or swelling | 1412 | 74.5 | 67 | 3.5 |
Persistent unexplained pain | 1210 | 63.9 | 59 | 3.1 |
Unexplained bleeding | 1242 | 65.5 | 21 | 1.1 |
A persistent cough or hoarseness | 1049 | 55.4 | 14 | 0.7 |
A change in bowel or bladder habits | 953 | 50.3 | 9 | 0.5 |
A persistent difficulty swallowing | 873 | 46.1 | 0 | 0 |
A change in appearance of a mole | 847 | 44.7 | 0 | 0 |
A sore that does not heal | 873 | 46.1 | 5 | 0.3 |
Unexplained night sweats | 500 | 26.4 | 0 | 0 |
Unexplained weight loss | 1090 | 57.5 | 50 | 2.6 |
Unexplained tiredness | 890 | 47 | 62 | 3.3 |
Risk factors | ||||
Smoking | 1681 | 88.7 | – | – |
Exposure to another person’s smoke | 1644 | 86.8 | – | – |
Drinking more than 1 unit of alcohol a day | 1149 | 60.6 | – | – |
Eating less than 5 portions of fruits and vegetables a day | 994 | 52.5 | – | – |
Eating red or processed meat once a day or more | 1099 | 58 | – | – |
Being obese | 1080 | 57 | – | – |
Getting sunburnt more than once as a child | 765 | 40.4 | – | – |
Being over 70 years old | 801 | 42.3 | – | – |
Having a close relative with cancer | 1245 | 65.7 | – | – |
Infection with Human Papillomavirus | 1001 | 52.8 | – | – |
Not doing much physical activity | 1125 | 59.4 | – | – |
Exposure to radiation such as radioactive materials, x-rays or radon | 1547 | 81.6 | – | – |
Multiple linear regression | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD) | Difference in mean (95% CI) | p | Adjusted difference in meana (95% CI) | p | |
Gender | |||||
Male | 5.6 (3.3) | Reference | Reference | 0.297 | |
Female | 6.0 (3.2) | 0.45 (0.15; 0.74) | 0.003 | 0.18 (−0.15; 0.51) | |
Age | |||||
40–49 years | 5.9 (3.2) | Reference | Reference | ||
50–59 years | 5.9 (3.3) | 0.04 (− 0.32; 0.39) | 0.841 | 0.11 (− 0.25; 0.46) | 0.556 |
60 + years | 4.9 (3.5) | − 0.99 (−1.48; − 0.50) | < 0.001 | −0.63 (−1.14; − 0.12) | 0.016 |
Ethnicity | |||||
Malay | 5.9 (3.2) | Reference | Reference | ||
Chinese | 5.7 (3.2) | −0.19 (− 0.50; 0.12) | 0.238 | − 0.32 (− 0.63; − 0.01) | 0.044 |
Indian | 5.9 (3.4) | − 0.02 (− 0.56; 0.52) | 0.949 | −0.14 (− 0.67; 0.39) | 0.609 |
Others | 4.3 (3.2) | − 1.60 (−2.48; − 0.71) | < 0.001 | −2.01 (−2.09; − 0.26) | 0.011 |
Education level | |||||
No formal education | 2.0 (2.1) | Reference | Reference | ||
Primary | 4.6 (3.5) | 2.55 (1.27; 3.83) | < 0.001 | 2.32 (1.00; 3.64) | < 0.001 |
Secondary | 5.8 (3.3) | 3.76 (2.57; 4.96) | < 0.001 | 3.37 (2.09; 4.65) | < 0.001 |
Tertiary | 6.2 (2.9) | 4.15 (2.94; 5.35) | < 0.001 | 3.72 (2.41; 5.02) | < 0.001 |
Marital Status | |||||
Married | 5.8 (3.3) | Reference | Reference | ||
Not married | 5.4 (2.8) | −0.43 (−0.88; 0.01) | 0.057 | −0.60 (−1.04; − 0.15) | 0.009 |
Transport ownership | |||||
None | 4.2 (3.5) | Reference | Reference | ||
Yes, one | 5.8 (3.3) | 1.60 (0.91; 2.30) | < 0.001 | 0.60 (− 0.12; 1.33) | 0.102 |
Yes, more than one | 5.9 (3.1) | 1.68 (0.97; 2.39) | < 0.001 | 0.47 (− 0.28; 1.22) | 0.219 |
Smoking | |||||
Current smoker | 4.9 (3.2) | Reference | Reference | ||
Ex-smoker | 5.9 (3.2) | 1.01 (0.33; 1.68) | 0.004 | 0.98 (0.31; 1.66) | 0.004 |
Never smoked | 6.0 (3.2) | 1.06 (0.68; 1.43) | < 0.001 | 0.89 (0.48; 1.31) | < 0.001 |
Self-related health | |||||
Fair to very poor | 5.9 (3.3) | Reference | Reference | ||
Good to very good | 5.7 (3.2) | −0.13 (− 0.46; 0.20) | 0.433 | − 0.31 (− 0.63; 0.01) | 0.060 |
Access to doctor | |||||
Easy | 5.8 (3.2) | Reference | Reference | ||
Difficult | 5.0 (3.5) | −0.85 (−1.57; − 0.12) | 0.022 | − 0.54 (− 1.26; 0.18) | 0.143 |
Experience with cancer | |||||
Yes | 6.1 (3.0) | Reference | Reference | ||
No | 5.7 (3.2) | −0.42 (− 0.79; − 0.06) | 0.022 | − 0.38 (− 0.75; − 0.02) | 0.041 |
Risk factor awareness
Multiple linear regression | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean (SD) | Difference in mean (95% CI) | p | Adjusted differnce in meana (95% CI) | p | |
Gender | |||||
Male | 7.4 (2.7) | Reference | Reference | 0.716 | |
Female | 7.5 (2.8) | 0.16 (− 0.09; 0.41) | 0.201 | − 0.05 (− 0.33; 0.23) | |
Age | |||||
40–49 years | 7.6 (2.6) | Reference | Reference | ||
50–59 years | 7.1 (3.0) | − 0.57 (− 0.86, − 0.27) | < 0.001 | −0.44 (− 0.74; − 0.14) | 0.003 |
60 + years | 7.1 (2.8) | −0.58 (− 1.00; − 0.17) | 0.006 | −0.27 (− 0.70; 0.16) | 0.22 |
Ethnicity | |||||
Malay | 8.0 (2.5) | Reference | Reference | ||
Chinese | 6.8 (3.0) | −1.23 (− 1.49; −0.97) | < 0.001 | −1.36 (− 1.62; − 1.10) | < 0.001 |
Indian | 7.4 (2.3) | − 0.60 (− 1.05; − 0.15) | 0.008 | −0.79 (− 1.24; − 0.34) | < 0.001 |
Others | 7.0 (2.6) | −1.03 (− 1.76; − 0.29) | 0.006 | −0.79 (− 1.53; − 0.06) | 0.034 |
Education level | |||||
No formal education | 4.9 (3.5) | Reference | Reference | ||
Primary | 7.2 (3.0) | 2.31 (1.22; 3.40) | < 0.001 | 2.44 (1.34; 3.55) | < 0.001 |
Secondary | 7.4 (2.8) | 2.6 (1.56; 3.60) | < 0.001 | 2.69 (1.61; 3.76) | < 0.001 |
Tertiary | 7.7 (2.5) | 2.81 (1.78; 3.84) | < 0.001 | 2.95 (1.85; 4.05) | < 0.001 |
Marital Status | |||||
Married | 7.5 (2.8) | Reference | Reference | ||
Not married | 7.5 (2.6) | 0.03 (−0.35; 0.41) | 0.868 | −0.20 (−0.58; 0.17) | 0.291 |
Transport ownership | |||||
None | 7.3 (3.2) | Reference | Reference | ||
Yes, one | 7.5 (2.7) | 0.24 (−0.35; 0.83) | 0.428 | −0.28 (− 0.89; 0.33) | 0.369 |
Yes, more than one | 7.4 (2.7) | 0.15 (−0.45; 0.75) | 0.633 | −0.56 (−1.19; 0.07) | 0.079 |
Smoking | |||||
Current smoker | 7.0 (2.8) | Reference | Reference | ||
Ex-smoker | 7.5 (3.1) | 0.45 (−0.13; 1.02) | 0.128 | 0.35 (−0.21; 0.92) | 0.218 |
Never smoked | 7.6 (2.7) | 0.56 (0.24; 0.88) | 0.001 | 0.68 (0.34; 1.03) | < 0.001 |
Self-related health | |||||
Fair to very poor | 7.3 (2.8) | Reference | Reference | ||
Good to very good | 7.5 (2.7) | 0.26 (−0.02; 0.53) | 0.066 | 0.23 (− 0.04; 0.50) | 0.095 |
Access to doctor | |||||
Easy | 7.5 (2.7) | Reference | Reference | ||
Difficult | 7.3 (2.9) | −0.11 (−0.73; 0.50) | 0.719 | −0.16; (− 0.76; 0.45) | 0.612 |
Experience with cancer | |||||
Yes | 7.3 (3.0) | Reference | Reference | ||
No | 7.5 (2.7) | 0.18 (−0.13; 0.49) | 0.249 | −0.02 (− 0.29; 0.33) | 0.902 |