Introduction
Methods and materials
Participants
Facial expression recognition tasks
Group comparisons
N | Age (yrs) Mean ± SD Range | IQ Mean ± SD Range | Sex m:f | Neuropsychiatric symptoms* | Medication use | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Autism | Control1 | Autism | Control | Sign | Autism | Control | Sign | Autism | Control | Sign | Autism | Control | Autism | Control | |
A. KDEF | |||||||||||||||
Overall | 251 | 150 | 16.38 ± 5.78 6.23–30.17 | 15.68 ± 5.68 6.23–29.8 | P > 0.05 | 98.69 ± 19.88 55–148 | 104.49 ± 19.23 51–142 | P < 0.01 | 181:70 | 98:52 | P > 0.05 | 99 | 4 | 108 (43%) | 29 (19%) |
Schedule A | 70 | 41 | 22.48 ± 3.53 18.01–30.13 | 22.31 ± 3.28 18.11–29.84 | P > 0.05 | 105.39 ± 14.95 76–148 | 111.49 ± 13.06 76–142 | P < 0.05 | 52:18 | 29:12 | P > 0.05 | 20 | 0 | 28 (40%) | 8 (20%) |
Schedule B | 80 | 42 | 15 ± 1.82 12.06–17.89 | 15.1 ± 1.57 12.24–17.67 | P > 0.05 | 102 ± 16.66 75–143 | 105.98 ± 12.92 77–126 | P > 0.05 | 62:18 | 28:14 | P > 0.05 | 33 | 1 | 37 (46%) | 7 (17%) |
Schedule C | 61 | 48 | 9.37 ± 1.49 6.23–11.96 | 9.39 ± 1.6 6.23–11.97 | P > 0.05 | 107.02 ± 14.44 77–148 | 112.6 ± 11.69 85–142 | P < 0.05 | 41:20 | 28:20 | P > 0.05 | 31 | 0 | 26 (43%) | 5 (10%) |
Schedule D | 40 | 19 | 19.15 ± 5.1 11.49–30.17 | 18.53 ± 3.91 12.58–27.11 | P > 0.05 | 67.03 ± 5.34 55–74 | 65.58 ± 7.45 51–74 | P > 0.05 | 26:14 | 13:6 | P > 0.05 | 15 | 3 | 17 (43%) | 9 (47%) |
B. RMET | |||||||||||||||
Overall | 277 | 211 | 16.45 ± 5.75 6.23–30.26 | 16.35 ± 5.65 6.23–30.95 | P > 0.05 | 101.9 ± 18.43 56–148 | 107.21 ± 16.28 52–142 | P < 0.001 | 198:78 | 134:77 | P > 0.05 | 104 | 8 | 120 (43%) | 38 (18%) |
Schedule A | 87 | 67 | 22.57 ± 3.51 18.01–30.26 | 22.51 ± 3.42 18.11–30.95 | P > 0.05 | 105.87 ± 15.01 76–148 | 110.88 ± 12.93 76–142 | P < 0.05 | 61:26 | 42:25 | P > 0.05 | 24 | 1 | 34 (39%) | 14 (21%) |
Schedule B | 89 | 74 | 15.05 ± 1.83 12.06–17.89 | 15.38 ± 1.72 12.03–17.96 | P > 0.05 | 105.02 ± 14.8 78–143 | 107.05 ± 12.61 77–140 | P > 0.05 | 69:20 | 50:24 | P > 0.05 | 35 | 4 | 41 (46%) | 12 (16%) |
Schedule C | 70 | 57 | 9.44 ± 1.54 6.23–11.96 | 9.67 ± 1.58 6.23–11.97 | P > 0.05 | 107.61 ± 14.87 77–148 | 112.49 ± 11.7 85–142 | P < 0.05 | 49:21 | 34:23 | P > 0.05 | 32 | 0 | 32 (46%) | 5 (9%) |
Schedule D | 31 | 13 | 19.08 ± 4.24 12.77–29.21 | 19.8 ± 3.9 14.55–27.11 | P > 0.05 | 66 ± 7.45 52–74 | 68.13 ± 4.63 56–74 | P > 0.05 | 19:11 | 8:5 | P > 0.05 | 13 | 3 | 13 (42%) | 7 (54%) |
C. FET | |||||||||||||||
Overall | 148 | 107 | 16.31 ± 5.75 6.23–28.57 | 15.88 ± 5.99 7.43–30.21 | P > 0.05 | 100.08 ± 19.27 55–148 | 105.52 ± 19.28 52–142 | P < 0.05 | 102:46 | 72:35 | P > 0.05 | 56 | 5 | 70 (47%) | 22 (21%) |
Schedule A | 47 | 30 | 22.4 ± 3.47 18.02–29.57 | 22.72 ± 3.28 18.11–29.84 | P > 0.05 | 105.22 ± 16.04 76–148 | 112.6 ± 11.15 94–142 | P < 0.05 | 32:15 | 22:8 | P > 0.05 | 13 | 0 | 22 (47%) | 5 (17%) |
Schedule B | 48 | 28 | 14.99 ± 1.88 12.28–17.89 | 15.03 ± 1.70 12.24–17.67 | P > 0.05 | 101.38 ± 16.18 75–142 | 107.68 ± 11.79 77–126 | P > 0.05 | 36:12 | 19:9 | P > 0.05 | 21 | 1 | 26 (54%) | 4 (14%) |
Schedule C | 35 | 36 | 9.16 ± 1.62 6.23–11.91 | 9.5 ± 1.39 7.43–11.69 | P > 0.05 | 107.6 ± 14.94 77–148 | 113 ± 12.24 85–142 | P > 0.05 | 22:13 | 23:13 | P > 0.05 | 14 | 0 | 14 (40%) | 5 (14%) |
Schedule D | 18 | 13 | 17.89 ± 4.82 13.79–27.21 | 19.56 ± 4.79 13.79–30.21 | P > 0.05 | 67 ± 5.47 55–74 | 63.85 ± 7.01 52–74 | P > 0.05 | 12:6 | 8:5 | P > 0.05 | 8 | 4 | 8 (44%) | 8 (61%) |
Clustering analysis
fMRI procedures
Results
Case–control comparisons
Preliminary analyses
Autism | Control | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
KDEF | RMET | FET | KDEF | RMET | FET | |
VIQ | 0.36**** (249) | 0.48***** (270) | 0.50**** (146) | 0.24*** (150) | 0.21** (210) | 0.44**** (107) |
PIQ | 0.34**** (250) | 0.42**** (272) | 0.47***** (147) | 0.0.38**** (150) | 0.25*** (210) | 0.27** (107) |
FSIQ | 0.37**** (249) | 0.50***** (270) | 0.53**** (146) | 0.32*** (150) | 0.24*** (210) | 0.39*** (107) |
Age | 0.15* (261) | − 0.03 (276) | 0.11 (148) | 0.11 (150) | − 0.03 (210) | − 00.1 (107) |
SRS-2, | − 0.19** (214) | − 0.22** (239) | − 0.33**** (126) | − 0.20 (87) | − 0.15 (117) | − 0.49*** (63) |
ADOS, CSS | − 0.30**** (186) | − 0.39***** (204) | − 0.51***** (105) | – | – | – |
RBS-R | − 0.19 (212) | − 0.10 (232) | − 0.28*** (123) | − 0.25 (88) | − 0.12 (114) | − 40** (64) |
VABS-2 | 0.21** (215) | 0.22** (230) | 0.36**** (126) | 0.64** (16) | 0.56** (15) | 0.57* (13) |
Neuropsychiatric symptoms | − 0.12 (251) | 0.02 (276) | − 0.08 (148) | − 0.13 (150) | − 0.18* (211) | − 0.31** (107) |
Medication use | 0.11 (238) | − 0.01 (264) | 0.05 (146) | − 0.15 (132) | − 0.04 (198) | − 0.15 (99) |
Clustering analysis
Autism | Control | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Cluster 1 N = 83 | Cluster 2 N = 36 | Cluster 3 N = 66 | Cluster 4 N = 24 | |
Age | 16.62 ± 5.69 7.47–29.57 | 15.45 ± 6.52 6.23–28.74 | 16.72 ± 6.23 7.55–29.84 | 14.44 ± 4.82 7.68–27.11 |
VIQ | 109.22 ± 16.13 66–160 | 85.6 ± 17.38 45–121 | 113.81 ± 13.98 89–160 | 96.25 ± 25.66 51–138 |
PIQ | 109.27 ± 15.15 75–148 | 88 ± 20.27 53–132 | 111.77 ± 13.25 85–136 | 93.67 ± 25.9 49–139 |
ADOS | 4.69 ± 2.43 1–9 | 6.84 ± 2.54 2–10 | N/A | N/A |
SRS | 69.33 ± 12.7 44–90 | 77.33 ± 10.46 53–90 | 44.31 ± 5.69 37–66 | 51.68 ± 12.75 38–76 |
RBS | 14.22 ± 12.87 0–54 | 24.03 ± 15.46 1–60 | 1.06 ± 2.49 0–12 | 3.42 ± 5.36 0–17 |
VABS-2 | 78.75 ± 15.43 20–110 | 66.82 ± 20.25 20–115 | 123.5 ± 9.69 117–141 | 51.25 ± 31.6 28–96 |
Sex m:f | 51:32 | 29:7 | 40:26 | 20:4 |
ID participants | 1 (1.2%) | 10 (27.7%) | 0 (0%) | 8 (33.3%) |
Neuropsychiatric symptoms* | 29 (34.9%) | 17 (47.2%) | 0 (0%) | 3 (12.5%) |
ID + Neuropsychiatric symptoms* | 0 (0%) | 5 (13.9%) | 0 (0%) | 3 (12.5%) |
Medication use | 39 | 18 | 11 | 6 |
Associations between expression recognition measures/clusters and clinical features
Dimensional relationships
Clusters
Relationship between clusters and individual task performance, respectively, and neurofunctional differences
Autism | Control | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Cluster 1 N = 46 | Cluster 2 N = 11 | Cluster 3 N = 49 | Cluster 4 N = 15 | |
Age (yrs) Mean ± SD (Range) | 18.14 ± 5.54 8.05–29.57 | 15.10 ± 6.15 7.41–27.88 | 17.2 ± 6.65 7.55–29.84 | 13.79 ± 4.48 9.27–27.11 |
IQ Mean (SD) Range | 109.98 ± 13.88 85–148 | 92.91 ± 12.45 78–117 | 113.59 ± 10.69 96–142 | 102.67 ± 22.42 52–134 |
Sex m:f | 28:18 | 10:1 | 30:19 | 12:3 |
ID participants | 0 (0%) | 0 (0%) | 0 (0%) | 3 (20%) |
Neuropsychiatric symptoms* | 15 | 4 | 0 | 1 |
Medication use | 23 | 5 | 8 | 3 |