Background
Methods
Study setting
Literature search
Data charting
Data collection
Data analysis
Results
Integrated care models | Country | Funding | Salient features | Limitations |
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Individual models of integrated care | ||||
American Case Management Association | USA | Both Government/Non-Government as Medicare and Medicaid | Promotes collaboration between patients, caregivers, nurses, social workers, doctors, and the community. Focuses on individualized communication to improve access to care through resource coordination [32]. The case manager assesses the patient's and caregiver's needs to establish a customized care plan, monitors the quality of care, and maintains communication with the patient and caregiver [33]. Evidence demonstrates that case management reduces hospital (re)admissions and enhances patient satisfaction. | The Cost-effectiveness of case management is still debated [24] and thus limits its acceptance in LMIC |
Individual care plans | Countries under Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) | Government As Medicare | Considered for patients with multimorbidity and long-term conditions. Care coordinators assess a patient's needs, design care plans, and organize multidisciplinary care delivery [25]. A personal budget (PB) is a type of intervention that emphasizes the patient's active involvement in their care. It comprises a sum of money allocated to the individual and used for various things in accordance with personal needs [34]. | |
Patient-centred medical home(s)2(PCMH) | USA | Non-Government | PCMH provides an alternative to the primary care network by physician-directed groups with nurses as care coordinators assigned to particular medical homes. Patients act as partners in understanding the culture, unique needs, preferences, and values of patients with multi-morbidities and chronic diseases [35]. PCMH uses information technology and health information exchanges, as well as allocating interdisciplinary teams [24]. The PCMH has been able to cut hospital admissions by 20% and readmission rates by 12% among its beneficiaries [36]. | PCMH has been chastised for being very fragmented, with delays in service delivery until reimbursement is rewarded [26]. |
Personal health budgets (PHB) | England | Government | PHBs focus on solving the ongoing needs of patients in terms of lived experiences by involving clinical practitioners' learned expertise to improve the quality of life [37]. A personal health budget is a monetary amount set aside by a person, or by their agent, and approved by the local integrated care system to meet that individual's needs for health and wellness. | |
Group and disease-specific models | ||||
Chronic Care Model (CCM) | USA and Countries under OECD | Government and Non-Government | CCM focuses on integrated community-based longitudinal and preventive care, in place of acute and episodic care. CCM functions through productive interactions and establishing partnerships between a community-based proactive practice team and encouraging informed patients to participate in community programs. The success of CCM is projected mainly due to the bidirectional communications, multidisciplinary team approach, and encouraging self-care [39]. | Barriers to the implementation of CCMs belong mainly to the patient’s will to change their behavior [28]. CCM is pitched to clinically oriented systems and is difficult to practice for the prevention and health promotion physicians. Also, slow response times from nurses and doctors, the need for regular training of staff [29], and patients may not actively contribute to self-care or may not have time for self-management support. |
Program of Research to Integrate the Services for the Maintenance of Autonomy (PRISMA) | Canada | Government | PRISMA model was designed to integrate the health and social services needs of elderly and frail patients which later on became the part of a Quebec-wide program called Réseau de Services Intégrés aux Personnes Âgées (RSIPA) [30]. The model aims to serve as a single-entry point to the system and coordinate care for the elderly and frail population. The model maintains people's functional stability, lowers the severity of unmet demands, and lightened the load on caregivers. A joint health and social care governing board establishes the strategy and allots funds to the network. It has been observed that participants in the PRISMA program had lower readmission rates to hospitals [40]. | Limitations with PRISMA, RSIPA, and similar programs are that the elderly population has to get enrolled in the program through case managers and meet the defined criteria for admission. [41] Also, for the implementation of PRISMA/RSIPA models, reorganization of the entire health care system is required which has affected the application of the program [30]. |
Chains of care model | Sweden | Government | The Sweden-based Chains [42] of care model was planned to connect screening components in a primary care facility, treatment plans developed in a specialty facility, and rehabilitation services offered in the community [43]. It acts by making use of contracts and aligns incentives to promote effective resource utilization. | Despite planned goals and activities, seven out of ten councils are unsure of the effectiveness of the development work. The most frequently cited causes of the failure include limiting vertical organizational structure and inadequate involvement of the local authorities [44]. |
Managed Clinical Network | Scotland | Government | The managed clinical network developed in Scotland moves from competition to cooperation [45] among the healthcare providers working in primary, secondary, and tertiary care, in a coordinated manner. Networks mainly work to improve service for patients with rare conditions or complex care needs. Clinical Networks are designed separately for a wide range of conditions ranging from Care of Burns in Scotland (COBIS), Children and Young People's Allergy Network (CYANS), Children with Exceptional Healthcare Needs (CEN), Cleft care Scotland, Network for Inherited Cardiac Conditions Scotland (NICCS), Inherited Metabolic Disorders Scotland (IMD), National Gender Identity Clinical Network Scotland (NGICNS), and so on [46]. Managed clinical networks offer better access to services with Improved coordination and Consistent advice for better care and prevention [45]. | Improvement is not linear for all the conditions and age groups as the network mainly focused on adults, young people, and children [45]. Further progress was significantly slower than expected, which at times caused frustration due to a lack of knowledge about leading practice, as well as inexperience with change management. |
Disease Management Programmes (DMPs) | Germany & Israel | Government | DMPs were introduced in the German health system to standardize nationwide programs regulating the entire duration of care in chronic conditions. While enrolment is voluntary, patients are required to adhere to the treatment goals and participate in self-management programs and disease-specific education [47]. | Barriers in implement DMPs include a lack of budgetary allocations and prolonged delivery time compared to compensation [48]. |
Population-based models | ||||
Kaiser Permanente | USA | Non- Government | With more than 9.6 million members across eight different states, Kaiser Permanente (KP) is one of the biggest health maintenance organizations in the USA. KP acts as an independent organization, separate from the government-provided healthcare delivery system. KP is a virtually integrated system comprised of three interconnected entities: a self-governing for-profit physician group (Permanente Medical Groups), a non-profit hospital system Kaiser Foundation Hospitals), and a non-profit health plan that covers insurance risks (Kaiser Foundation Health Plan). All three systems are mutually exclusive with regard to the purchasing and provision of services, but remain bound together by a single mission, combining systemic and normative integration [49]. | Since patients have to choose either the tax-based government coverage or the KP system, benefits based on government universal coverage may not be provided to enrolled patients. Health coverage to enlisted individuals is based on health plans ranging from low coverage to high coverage, based on the co-payments [31]. Thus, the KP model will be difficult to adopt in resource-limited LMIC where financers and insurance-based coverage is limited |
Veterans’ Health Administration | USA | Non-Government | Older adults with chronic diseases in the United States can receive integrated treatments from the Veterans Health Administration (VA). The VA owns and operates hospitals and employs clinicians to provide services within its network. The VA consists of 21 regionally based integrated service networks [50]. | Only works within the network and thus cannot be implemented in the regions outside the VA integrated service networks |
Integrated care in the Basque country | Basque | Government | In order to improve the outcome of care for chronic patients, Basque integrated care recognizes the interdependencies between primary care, social services, and hospitals to produce better results. Integrated care was provided using two different strategies. A bottom-up approach where primary and secondary care physicians were emphasized on coordination of care procedures. Integrated Healthcare Organizations (IHOs) were formed by combining hospital and primary care institutions. Important aspects of the model include simultaneous activation of all systems that aid integrated care. Units for Continuity of Care (CCU), established by IHOs to serve high-risk patients have enhanced coordination. CCUs are staffed with dedicated referral internists who are in charge of admitting and stabilizing chronic patients and transfer from the hospital to home, where they will subsequently be followed up on by their general practitioner. The use of strategies including patient education and information technology has been another factor in the success of the Basque integrated care strategy [51]. | The primary care practitioners value the integrated system, but professionals at all the central levels impose barriers to implementation as lack of funding and political backing, time restrictions for consultations, and trouble juggling conflicting daily needs [52]. |
Proposed solution
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The Macro Level of Integration will help in load-balancing by diverting patients in a coordinated manner through a gateway between 3 tiers of HDS using the Central Gateway Control Room (CGCR) within the states, which can be scaled up in later stages, to include the apex centres (Fig. 1). CGCR will be connected to the Secondary level grid with similar replicating capsules using the Hub and spoke model. Primary-level gateways will act as the first point of contact for initial evaluation and will divert the patients to CGCR in case of a requirement that calls for a referral.
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Existing Tools and schemes already rolled out by the Government of India like, Ayushman Bharat-Pradhan Mantri Jan Arogya Yojana, or PM-JAY (government-funded health insurance scheme), Ayushman Bharat Digital Mission (ABDM), Integrated Disease Surveillance Program (IDSP), Integrated Health Information System (IHIP), eHospital, e‐Shushrut, Electronic Vaccine, Intelligence Network (eVIN), Integrated Health, Information Platform (IHIP), National Health Portal (NHP), National Identification Number (NIN), Online Registration System (ORS), Mera Aspatal (Patient Feedback System), Health Management Information System (HMIS), will help in bridging the data gaps across the chain of treatment and will act as the backbone for developing Patient Surge Management (PSM) facilities. Patients visiting primary HDS will be registered under ABDM through HMIS and generate an ABHA number for online medical records and patient pathway tracking. All the Healthcare facilities and providers will be registered under ABDM by generating a Health care facility ID and a Health professional ID, respectively.
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Medical officers will assess patients for the complexity of their medical needs. Patients are tagged with an ABHA number. In case a patient needs to be referred to a higher centre, the tagged patient will exit from the PHC, enter the Secondary and tertiary care grid, and can be tracked through different levels of HDS. The ABDM will help healthcare providers track the patient's moment at each level of care.
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The distribution of patients within the secondary and tertiary HDS will be managed through the CGCR. The CGCR will act on the principles of Identification and Routing of referrals initiated through primary HDS. The CGCR acts as the hub of the Spoke Model, where the CGCR will act as a control centre for the distribution and assigning of patients referred from the Primary Gateway to integrated Secondary Capsules (SdC). Each SdC will be a replica of the other, having identical health resources (Fig. 2). Within each spoke the allocation of patients to each capsule will be done per the bucket overflow model (Fig. 3). The patients referred from PHC will be diverted to each capsule till the beds available at each SdC are filled. As soon as one capsule gets filled by patients, new patients will be allocated to the next capsule, and so on. Patients will only be referred to tertiary care through CGCR when all the SdC are occupied or if the specific patient requires a specialised tertiary level of care.
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Each SdC constitutes five major components, i.e., Out Patient Department (OPD), Inpatient Patient Department, Emergency, Minor Operation Theater, and ancillary and auxiliary services (Fig. 5).
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Secondary care HDS will act as a self-contained and self-equipped care centre facility available at the SdC per IPHS standards [53]. Functioning of the OPDs will be based on a proposed Triple-layered Concentric Circle Out Patient Department (TLCCO) design, planned to have First, ancillary and auxiliary services in the outer ring, Second, screening OPD in the middle ring, and Third, Referral and Cross Referral cases in the third innermost ring (Fig. 6). TLCCO will decrease the need to travel from one level of care to another for general and specialist outpatient care centres and will be provided under a single roof. It is envisaged to have a unidirectional design that prevents the crisscrossing of patients.
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Three-Door OPD Concept (TDO): Out-patient consultation chambers will be planned with three doors: one for entry, the second for exit, and the third for speciality or cross-consultation. Patients requiring specialist consultation will be directly entered into the inner rings through the third door. TDO will prevent the intermixing of patients and provide a unidirectional flow of patients (Fig. 6).