Background
Methods
Study design
Interventions
School gardens with education component (SG)
School garden and complementary interventions (SG+)
- Health promotion activities, such as the development of an educational comic booklet that incorporated information about school gardens, nutrition and WASH targeted to school-aged children. Formative research was conducted with children and their caregivers to develop this booklet.
- Provision of a nutrition booklet and hand-outs, incorporating information for children related to fruits and vegetables. The booklet was developed in collaboration with the health personnel.
- Development of a poster to display information related to nutrition, handwashing and waste management for children.
- Demonstration of adequate handwashing with soap. The demonstration was done by health personnel, delivered to children and their caregivers.
- Developing songs related to sanitation and hygiene. Teachers, in collaboration with local authorities, drafted the songs in the schools.
- Audio-visual aids related to nutrition and WASH for children and their caregivers.
- Construction of at least three latrines per school and six to 12 handwashing facilities with the weekly provision of soap (50 bars per week).
- Weekly health education programmes related to nutrition and WASH for caregivers and community stakeholders with the distribution of soap once a week over a 5-month period.
- Organisation of informative sessions for caregivers to explain the school garden programme, highlighting the importance of school gardening and replicating the learnt gardening skills at home to set up home gardens.
Study sites, study population and sample size
- the prevalence of intestinal protozoan and helminth infections is about 30% [19] and remains constant in the absence of any intervention;
- the probability of new intestinal protozoa and helminth infections at follow-up is 10%;
- the same effect odds ratios (ORs) apply to incidence and persistence of intestinal protozoa and helminth infection; and
- each of the two interventions reduces the odds of infection by 50%, and their effects are additive on the logit-scale.
Outcome indicators
Outcome | Description of outcome | Expected results |
---|---|---|
Outcome 1 (Primary outcome) | Change in knowledge about fruits and vegetables, malnutrition, anaemia and intestinal parasitic infection | Schoolchildren know about: |
• the average daily requirement of intake of fruits and vegetables | ||
• malnutrition and its causes | ||
• importance of consuming fruits and vegetables for improved health | ||
• WASH and related diseases including intestinal parasitic infections | ||
Outcome 2 | Change in dietary diversity and fruits and vegetables intake | • the dietary diversity score (DDS) and the average fruits and vegetables consumption will increase among school children among SG+ |
• the dietary behaviour translates into behaviour change towards increased fruits and vegetables consumption | ||
Outcome 3 | Change in nutritional status and haemoglobin level | • the improvement in children’s weight and height among schoolchildren in the SG+ arm • the increase of blood haemoglobin levels among schoolchildren in the SG+ arm |
Outcome 4 (Primary outcome) | Change in intestinal parasitic infection | • the incidence of intestinal parasitic infections among schoolchildren from intervention schools will be decreased |
Outcome 5 | Change in water quality, sanitation and hygiene conditions | • WASH conditions will be improved with well-tailored package of interventions implemented at the unit of schools and households |
Data collection procedures
Statistical analysis
Results
Study compliance and characteristics of study population
Characteristics | Control | SG-interventiona | Combined intervention (SG+)b | Total | p-value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
[n, (%)] | [n, (%)] | [n, (%)] | |||
Children’s demographic characteristics | |||||
Sex | |||||
Female | 156 (47.3) | 77 (43.0) | 106 (53.3) | 339 (47.9) | 0.13 |
Male | 174 (52.7) | 102 (57.0) | 93 (46.7) | 369 (52.1) | |
Age groups | |||||
Age group 1 (8–12 years) | 47 (14.2) | 29 (16.2) | 32 (16.1) | 108 (15.3) | 0.78 |
Age group 2 (13–17 years) | 283 (85.8) | 150 (83.8) | 167 (83.9) | 600 (84.7) | |
Caregivers demographic characteristics | |||||
Caregivers education | |||||
No formal schooling | 80 (26.6) | 58 (48.0) | 72 (51.4) | 210 (37.4) | < 0.01 |
Primary education | 72 (24.0) | 36 (29.8) | 36 (25.7) | 144 (25.6) | |
Secondary education | 94 (31.2) | 22 (18.2) | 27 (19.3) | 143 (25.4) | |
Higher education | 55 (18.3) | 5 (4.1) | 5 (3.4) | 65 (11.6) | |
Caregivers ethnicity | |||||
Brahmin | 28 (9.3) | 52 (37.1) | 21 (17.4) | 101 (18.0) | < 0.01 |
Chhetri | 102 (33.9) | 56 (46.3) | 52 (37.1) | 210 (37.4) | |
Newar | 15 (5.0) | 14 (11.6) | 4 (2.9) | 33 (5.9) | |
Tamang | 152 (50.5) | 30 (24.8) | 31 (22.1) | 213 (37.9) | |
Janajati | 4 (1.3) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (0.7) | 5 (0.9) | |
Caregivers occupation | |||||
No occupation | 21 (7.0) | 0 (0.0) | 4 (2.9) | 25 (4.5) | < 0.01 |
Farmer | 235 (78.1) | 96 (79.3) | 127 (90.7) | 458 (81.5) | |
Public service | 17 (5.7) | 17 (14.1) | 5 (3.6) | 39 (6.9) | |
Business owner | 28 (9.3) | 8 (6.6) | 4 (2.9) | 40 (7.1) | |
Socioeconomic characteristics | |||||
Roof materials | |||||
Corrugated iron roof | 272 (90.4) | 59 (48.8) | 84 (60.0) | 415 (73.8) | < 0.01 |
Wood and tiles | 29 (9.6) | 62 (51.2) | 56 (40.0) | 147 (26.2) | |
Wall materials | |||||
Wood | 41 (13.6) | 15 (12.4) | 10 (7.1) | 66 (11.7) | 0.05 |
Corrugated iron | 47 (15.6) | 12 (9.9) | 30 (21.4) | 89 (15.8) | |
Bricks | 213 (70.8) | 94 (77.7) | 100 (71.4) | 407 (72.4) | |
Floor materials | |||||
Mud | 270 (89.7) | 115 (95.0) | 139 (99.3) | 524 (93.2) | < 0.01 |
Cement | 31 (10.3) | 6 (5.0) | 1 (0.7) | 38 (6.8) | |
Energy for cooking | |||||
Charcoal/wood | 254 (84.4) | 96 (79.3) | 123 (87.9) | 473 (84.2) | 0.17 |
Electricity | 47 (15.6) | 25 (20.7) | 17 (12.1) | 89 (15.8) | |
Socioeconomic status | |||||
High | 28 (9.3) | 15 (12.4) | 6 (4.3) | 49 (8.7) | < 0.01 |
Middle | 96 (31.9) | 62 (51.2) | 57 (40.7) | 215 (38.3) | |
Poor | 177 (58.8) | 44 (36.4) | 77 (55.0) | 298 (53.0) | |
Own agricultural land | 283 (94.0) | 112 (92.7) | 116 (82.9) | 511 (90.9) | < 0.01 |
Total production | |||||
≤ 10% | 13 (4.3) | 9 (7.4) | 22 (15.7) | 44 (7.8) | < 0.01 |
10–30% | 14 (4.7) | 3 (2.5) | 3 (2.1) | 20 (3.6) | |
≥ 30% | 274 (91.0) | 109 (90.1) | 115 (82.1) | 498 (88.6) | |
Possession of domestic animals | 283 (94.0) | 105 (86.8) | 119 (85.0) | 507 (90.2) | < 0.01 |
Outcomes 1 and 2: change in knowledge about fruits and vegetables, dietary diversity, malnutrition, anaemia and intestinal parasitic infection
Nutrition variables | Categories | Control | SG-intervention (SG) | Combined intervention (SG+) | Effect of SG-intervention (95% CI) | p-value | Effect of combined intervention (95% CI) | p-value | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Baseline (n = 313) | End-line (n = 313) | Baseline (n = 172) | End-line (n = 172) | Baseline (197) | End-line (n = 197) | ||||||
Self-reported daily requirement of frequency of fruit and vegetable consumptiona | 0 | 34 (10.9) | 0 (0.0) | 29 (16.9) | 0 (0.0) | 17 (8.6) | 0 (0.0) | 0.15 (−0.33–0.63)c | 0.55 | 0.15 (−0.32–0.63)c | 0.53 |
1 | 7 (2.2) | 64 (20.5) | 7 (4.1) | 25 (14.5) | 11 (5.6) | 28 (14.2) | |||||
2 | 20 (6.4) | 166 (53.0) | 18 (10.5) | 98 (57.0) | 19 (9.6) | 120 (60.9) | |||||
3 | 117 (37.4) | 0 (0.0) | 68 (39.5) | 0 (0.0) | 98 (49.8) | 0 (0.0) | |||||
4 | 101 (32.3) | 0 (0.0) | 29 (16.9) | 0 (0.0) | 38 (19.3) | 0 (0.0) | |||||
≥5 | 34 (10.9) | 83 (26.5) | 21 (12.2) | 49 (28.5) | 14 (7.1) | 49 (24.9) | |||||
Opinion about fruits and vegetables consumptionsa,b | 0 | 24 (7.7) | 27 (8.6) | 15 (8.7) | 11 (6.4) | 20 (10.1) | 3 (1.5) | 0.07 (−0.12–0.25)c | 0.48 | 0.21 (0.02–0.39)d | 0.03 |
1 | 58 (18.5) | 12 (3.8) | 61 (35.5) | 0 (0.0) | 38 (19.3) | 0 (0.0) | |||||
2 | 231 (73.8) | 274 (87.5) | 96 (55.8) | 161 (93.6) | 139 (70.6) | 194 (98.5) | |||||
Consumption of green vegetables prior to day of survey | 123 (39.3) | 177 (56.5) | 50 (29.1) | 98 (57.0) | 87 (44.2) | 102 (51.8) | 0.70 (0.10–4.86)d | 0.72 | 0.76 (0.10–5.89)-d | 0.80 | |
Heard about malnutrition | 83 (26.5) | 213 (68.0) | 44 (25.6) | 122 (70.9) | 87 (44.2) | 174 (88.3) | 1.48 (0.85–2.57)d | 0.17 | 6.08 (3.01–12.3)d | < 0.001 | |
Perception of malnutrition as a problem | 67 (21.4) | 189 (88.7) | 34 (19.8) | 115 (94.3) | 73 (37.1) | 165 (94.3) | 2.19 (0.26–18.6)d | 0.47 | 2.51 (0.34–18.5)d | 0.37 | |
Responses related to the causes of malnutrition | Disease | 0 (0.0) | 44 (14.1) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (1.7) | 2 (1.0) | 5 (2.5) | 0.09 (0.005–1.58)d | 0.10 | 0.12 (0.01–1.43)d | 0.09 |
Lack of food | 19 (6.1) | 95 (30.3) | 11 (6.4) | 36 (20.9) | 11 (5.6) | 63 (32.0) | 2.53 (0.47–13.5)d | 0.28 | 1.10 (0.20–5.95)d | 0.91 | |
Irregular meal | 19 (6.1) | 108 (34.5) | 14 (8.1) | 46 (26.7) | 30 (15.2) | 83 (42.1) | 2.06 (0.49–8.62)d | 0.32 | 0.36 (0.08–1.77)d | 0.21 | |
Poorly prepared food | 2 (0.6) | 47 (15.0) | 1 (0.6) | 14 (8.1) | 3 (1.5) | 19 (9.6) | 0.28 (0.08–1.02)d | 0.05 | 0.80 (0.26–2.45)d | 0.70 | |
Lack of means to afford good food | 3 (1.0) | 36 (11.5) | 0 (0.0) | 10 (5.8) | 5 (2.5) | 24 (12.2) | 0.58 (0.12–2.75)d | 0.50 | 1.90 (0.45–8.10)d | 0.39 | |
Heard about anaemia | 128 (63.4) | 122 (60.1) | 49 (24.3) | 36 (17.7) | 25 (12.4) | 45 (22.2) | 0.52 (0.27–1.00)d | 0.05 | 0.46 (0.24–0.87)d | 0.02 | |
Heard about night blindness | 126 (55.7) | 156 (54.2) | 62 (27.4 | 71 (24.6) | 38 (16.8) | 61 (21.2) | 0.98 (0.23–4.07)d | 0.97 | 0.52 (0.13–2.13)d | 0.36 | |
Heard about intestinal parasitic infections | 50 (37.6) | 199 (57.3) | 42 (31.6) | 66 (19.0) | 41 (30.8) | 82 (23.6) | 0.26 (0.07–0.92)d | 0.04 | 0.68 (0.18–2.63)d | 0.58 | |
Dietary diversity scorea | 1 | 2 (0.6) | 28 (9.0) | 2 (1.2) | 24 (14.0) | 0 (0.0) | 14 (7.1) | −0.67 (−1.58–0.24)c | 0.15 | −0.30 (−1.22–0.63)c | 0.53 |
2 | 30 (9.6) | 33 (10.5) | 26 (15.1) | 27 (15.7) | 11 (5.6) | 25 (12.7) | |||||
3 | 106 (33.9) | 32 (10.2) | 53 (30.8) | 21 (12.2) | 50 (25.4) | 21 (10.7) | |||||
4 | 109 (34.8) | 29 (9.3) | 53 (30.8) | 21 (12.2) | 72 (36.6) | 22 (11.2) | |||||
5 | 50 (16.0) | 30 (9.6) | 32 (18.6) | 22 (12.8) | 49 (24.9) | 29 (14.7) | |||||
6 | 15 (4.8) | 27 (8.6) | 5 (2.9) | 20 (11.6) | 14 (7.1) | 29 (14.7) | |||||
7 | 1 (0.3) | 29 (9.3) | 0 (0.0) | 13 (7.6) | 1 (0.5) | 34 (17.3) | |||||
8 | 0 (0.0) | 44 (14.1) | 1 (0.6) | 13 (7.6) | 0 (0.0) | 19 (9.6) | |||||
9 | 0 (0.0) | 61 (19.5) | 0 (0.0) | 11 (6.4) | 0 (0.0) | 4 (2.0) |
Outcome 3: changes in anthropometric indicators and anaemia among school-aged children
Outcomes | Group | Baseline prevalence (%) | End-line prevalence (%) | Odds ratioa (OR) | 95% CI | p-value** |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Stuntingb | Control | 19.7 | 18.9 | 0.91 | 0.56–1.49 | |
SG-intervention | 17.7 | 19.5 | 1.17 | 0.62–2.20 | 0.54 | |
Combined intervention (SG+) | 19.9 | 18.3 | 0.88 | 0.49–1.56 | 0.92 | |
Thinnessb | Control | 12.3 | 7.1 | 0.47 | 0.24–0.94 | |
SG-intervention | 9.7 | 10.4 | 1.09 | 0.48–2.48 | 0.12 | |
Combined intervention (SG+) | 5.7 | 9.9 | 2.10 | 0.88–5.02 | < 0.01 | |
Anaemiac | Control | 22.7 | 41.3 | 3.06 | 1.97–4.77 | |
SG-intervention | 20.7 | 43.9 | 3.77 | 2.17–6.56 | 0.56 | |
Combined intervention (SG+) | 33.0 | 32.0 | 0.94 | 0.59–1.51 | < 0.01 | |
Intestinal parasitic infections | Control | 43.9 | 42.4 | 0.95 | 0.67–1.36 | |
SG-intervention | 33.5 | 27.4 | 0.75 | 0.46–1.20 | 0.42 | |
Combined intervention (SG+) | 37.1 | 9.4 | 0.16 | 0.09–0.29 | < 0.01 |
Outcomes | End-line (June 2016) | Effect of SG-intervention (95% CI)a | p-value | Effect of combined intervention (SG+) (95%CI)a | p-value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control (%) | SG-intervention (%) | Combined intervention (SG+) (%) | |||||
Logistic models (binary outcomes) | |||||||
Persistenceb of stunting | 20 (37.7) | 10 (34.5) | 14 (36.8) | 0.57 (0.13–2.60) | 0.47 | 0.78 (0.18–3.25) | 0.73 |
Persistence of thinness | 8 (24.2) | 4 (25.0) | 4 (36.4) | 1.36 (0.22–8.29) | 0.74 | 3.50 (0.43–28.74) | 0.24 |
Persistence of overweight | 4 (66.7) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (14.3) | n/a | n/a | ||
Persistence of anaemia | 32 (52.5) | 23 (67.6) | 30 (47.6) | 2.21 (0.74–6.62) | 0.15 | 0.70 (0.27–1.81) | 0.46 |
Incidence of stunting | 31 (14.3) | 22 (16.3) | 21 (13.7) | 0.60 (0.28–1.29) | 0.19 | 0.60 (0.24–1.49) | 0.27 |
Incidence of thinness | 11 (4.70) | 13 (8.8) | 15 (8.3) | 2.06 (0.81–5.21) | 0.13 | 3.07 (1.10–8.61) | 0.03 |
Incidence of overweight | 14 (5.3) | 6 (3.7) | 6 (3.3) | 0.38 (0.86–1.65) | 0.20 | 0.58 (0.13–2.61) | 0.48 |
Incidencec of anaemia | 79 (38.0) | 49 (37.7) | 31 (24.2) | 1.20 (0.43–3.33) | 0.73 | 0.56 (0.16–1.90) | 0.35 |
Linear model (continuous outcomes)d | |||||||
Change in height-for-age (for stunting) | −0.02 (−0.24, 0.19) | −0.16 (0.44, 0.13) | 0.19 (−0.09, 0.46) | 0.05 (−0.46–0.56) | 0.85 | 0.41 (−0.17–0.98) | 0.41 |
Change in BMI-for age (for thinness) | 1.58 (1.14, 2.02) | 0.94 (0.35, 1.54) | 1.02 (0.44, 1.59) | −0.98 (−1.74- (− 0.22)) | 0.01 | − 0.64 (−1.49–0.22) | 0.14 |
Height gain (cm) | 5.20 (3.98, 6.43) | 3.20 (1.59, 4.81) | 6.84 (5.33, 8.35) | −0.52 (−2.67–1.63) | 0.64 | 2.88 (− 0.54–5.23) | 0.02 |
Weight gain (kg) | 6.16 (5.11, 7.21) | 3.50 (2.09, 4.91) | 5.75 (4.42, 7.09) | −2.15 (−4.55- (−0.26)) | 0.08 | 0.22 (− 2.47–2.92) | 0.87 |
Change in haemoglobin level (g/dl) | −0.64 (− 0.98, − 0.30) | −0.60 (− 1.06, − 0.13) | −0.03 (− 0.48, 0.42) | −0.03 (− 0.78–0.72) | 0.94 | 0.58 (− 0.26–1.43) | 0.18 |
Outcome 4: change in intestinal parasitic infections in school-aged children
Outcomes | End-line (June 2016) | Effect of SG-intervention (95% CI)b | p-value | Effect of combined intervention (SG+) (95% CI)b | p-value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control (n = 151/118)a (%) | SG-intervention (n = 109/55)a (%) | Combined intervention (SG+) (n = 120/71)a (%) | |||||
Persistence of overall intestinal parasitic infections | 54 (45.8) | 17 (30.9) | 6 (8.4) | 0.71 (0.30–1.69) | 0.44 | 0.14 (0.01–0.68) | < 0.01 |
Persistence of overall intestinal protozoa infection | 9 (10.3) | 4 (9.1) | 0 (0.0) | 0.69 (0.15–3.25) | 0.64 | n/a | n/a |
Persistence of overall soil-transmitted helminth infections | 56 (47.5) | 15 (28.3) | 7 (10.3) | 0.54 (0.21–1.41) | 0.21 | 0.20 (0.05–0.82) | 0.03 |
Persistence of overall nematode infections | 53 (46.1) | 11 (22.0) | 7 (11.1) | 0.34 (0.12–0.94) | 0.04 | 0.23 (0.06–0.91) | 0.04 |
Incidence of overall intestinal parasitic infections | 60 (39.7) | 28 (25.7) | 12 (10.0) | 0.48 (0.22–1.05) | 0.07 | 0.09 (0.03–0.28) | 0.01 |
Incidence of overall intestinal protozoa infections | 19 (10.4) | 7 (5.8) | 2 (1.5) | 0.55 (0.20–1.50) | 0.24 | 0.11 (0.01–0.84) | 0.03 |
Incidence of overall soil-transmitted helminth infection | 43 (28.5) | 20 (18.0) | 9 (7.3) | 0.49 (0.18–1.31) | 0.15 | 0.05 (0.01–0.30) | < 0.01 |
Incidence of overall nematode infections | 39 (25.3) | 15 (13.2) | 9 (7.0) | 0.31 (0.08–1.13) | 0.08 | 0.06 (0.01–0.43) | < 0.01 |
Outcome 5: changes in drinking water quality in households and KAP on WASH among school-aged children
Category | Parameters | Unit | Range | Baseline (March–May, 2015) | End-line (June 2016) | Effect of SG- intervention (95% CI) | p-value | Effect of combined intervention (SG+) (95% CI) | p-value | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control n (%) | SG- intervention n (%) | Combined intervention (SG + N + WASH) n (%) | Control n (%) | SG-intervention n (%) | Combined intervention (SG+) n (%) | ||||||||
Linear model (continuous outcome) | |||||||||||||
Physical characteristics | Turbidity | NTU | > 5 | 7 (3) | 3 (4) | 0 (0) | 46 (20) | 26 (31) | 23 (32) | 0.53 | 0.58 | ||
2–5 | 223 (97) | 81 (96) | 73 (100) | 184 (80) | 58 (69) | 50 (68) | (−0.70–1.77) | 0.4 | (−0.82–1.99) | 0.42 | |||
pH | 6.5–8.5 | 230 (100) | 84 (100) | 73 (100) | 230 (100) | 84 (100) | 73 (100) | ||||||
Chemical characteristics | Free residual chlorine | mg/l | 0.3–0.5 | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 42 (18) | 26 (31) | 18 (25) | 0.02 | 0.01 | ||
0.1–0.2 | 230 (100) | 84 (100) | 73 (100) | 188 (82) | 58 (69) | 55 (75) | (−0.01–0.06) | 0.26 | (−0.03–0.05) | 0.78 | |||
Total residual chlorine | mg/l | ≥0.5 | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 225 (98) | 80 (95) | 73 (100) | −0.01 | 0.02 | |||
0.2–0.49 | 230 (100) | 84 (100) | 73 (100) | 2 (1) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | (−0.03–0.04) | 0.7 | (−0.02–0.05) | 0.35 | |||
0–0.19 | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 3 (1) | 4 (5) | 0 (0) | |||||||
Microbiological characteristics | Thermotole-rant coliforms | CFU/100 ml | 0 | 170 (74) | 68 (81) | 68 (93) | 171 (74) | 59 (70) | 52 (71) | −5.33 | −0.99 | ||
1–10 | 37 (16.) | 10 (12) | 5 (7) | 9 (4) | 13 (15) | 4 (5) | (−34.6–23.9) | 0.72 | (−33.2–31.3) | 0.95 | |||
11–100 | 14 (6) | 4 (5) | 0 (0) | 16 (7) | 4 (5) | 7 (10) | |||||||
> 100 | 9 (4) | 2 (2) | 0 (0) | 34 (15) | 8 (10) | 10 (14) |
Outcomes | Categories | Baseline (March–May 2015) | End-line (June 2016) | Effect of SG- interventiona (95% CI) | p-value | Effect of combined intervention (SG + N + WASH)a (95% CI) | p-value | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Control (n = 313) | SG- intervention (n = 172) | Combined intervention (SG+) (n = 197) | Control (n = 313) | SG- intervention (n = 172) | Combined intervention (SG+) (n = 172) | ||||||
Handwashing: | |||||||||||
Before eating | 244 (78.3) | 115 (66.9) | 146 (74.1) | 263 (84.0) | 149 (86.6) | 191 (96.9) | 1.50 (0.66–3.41) | 0.34 | 9.36 (1.89–46.2) | 0.01 | |
After playing | 186 (59.4) | 90 (52.3) | 127 (64.5) | 203 (64.9) | 125 (72.7) | 141 (71.6) | 0.53 (0.21–1.32) | 0.18 | 1.20 (0.41–3.48) | 0.74 | |
After defecation | 244 (78.0) | 117 (68.0) | 152 (77.2) | 285 (91.0) | 168 (97.7) | 195 (99.0) | 3.57 (0.30–42.1) | 0.31 | 3.03 (0.66–13.9) | 0.15 | |
Children bringing drinking water from home | 35 (11.2) | 19 (11.0) | 43 (21.8) | 135 (43.1) | 47 (27.3) | 23 (11.7) | 0.63 (0.13–3.02) | 0.56 | 0.09 (0.01–0.70) | 0.02 | |
Dirty water causing: | Diarrhoea | 196 (62.6) | 104 (60.5) | 140 (71.1) | 281 (89.8) | 163 (94.8) | 196 (99.5) | 1.79 (0.64–5.01) | 0.27 | 0.75 (0.31–1.83) | 0.53 |
Cholera | 36 (11.5) | 45 (26.2) | 54 (27.4) | 313 (100.0) | 172 (100.0) | 197 (100.0) | 1.97 (0.82–4.74) | 0.13 | 1.82 (0.70–4.72) | 0.22 | |
Skin irritation | 26 (8.3) | 7 (4.1) | 14 (7.1) | 56 (17.2) | 15 (8.7) | 6 (3.0) | 0.22 (0.05–0.99) | 0.05 | 0.73 (0.11–4.94) | 0.75 | |
Typhus | 22 (7.0) | 10 (5.8) | 9 (4.6) | 42 (13.4) | 8 (4.6) | 12 (6.1) | 0.22 (0.02–2.42) | 0.22 | 3.03 (0.18–51.0) | 0.44 | |
Eye irritation | 2 (0.6) | 0 (0.0) | 7 (3.5) | 22 (7.0) | 1 (0.6) | 1 (0.51) | 0.12 (0.01–6.21) | 0.29 | 0.74 (0.01–1.09) | 0.90 | |
Worms/parasites | 28 (8.9) | 16 (9.3) | 26 (13.2) | 52 (16.6) | 29 (16.9) | 21 (10.7) | 0.84 (0.44–1.59) | 0.59 | 0.46 (0.20–1.07) | 0.07 |