Introduction
Research questions
Methods
The review
Search strategy
Study selection
Data extraction
Visual analysis
Visual components | Examples | |
---|---|---|
1) Technical | Type of intervention | poster, leaflet, video |
Medium (could be more than one) | photo, video, diagram, illustration, 3D letter | |
Effects | lens flare, fisheye, flash lighting, special photo processing | |
2) Reading the Visual | Actor’s appearance | Perceived age, perceived gender, clothing, physical features (e.g. hair colour/ skin tone, muscular tone/ body type), other identifying features (e.g. tattoos, glasses) |
Setting/ Environment | e.g. bedroom/ plain white background | |
Props/ Objects | e.g. actor holding a ball | |
Form of representation | Narrative (action, transactions, mental/ verbal processes) | |
Conceptual (classificational, analytical, symbolism) | ||
Contact | Demand (e.g. direct eye contact, offer of information, services or goods) | |
Social Distance | Intimate (close up), Medium (social), Impersonal (distance) | |
Point of View | Engagement, Involvement, Detachment | |
Viewer power, Equality, Representation power | ||
Compositional (Salience) | Information value, Framing, Colour, Focus, Texture, Scale | |
Modality | High/ Medium/ Low level of truth to image | |
3) What supports the visual? | Text | Content, Form (e.g., questions, speech, instructions), Font (colour, tone, weight) |
Logos | Relative size, location, type of organisation, recognisable by audience | |
Audio | Music, sound effects, speech? | |
4) Social Context of Viewing | location of materials | Clinic, public billboard, gay scene venue |
references to visual culture | e.g. use of soap opera style dramatization, e.g. telenovela style when targeting Latin American populations | |
Societal norms, stereotypes, stigmas, controversies at play | Challenges the stereotype of who contracts STDs/ Challenges silence/ encourages discussion of topic | |
5) Overall - combination | Intended/ unintended audiences | e.g. if located in gay friendly setting, Gay and bisexual men who have sex with men may be intended or target but others frequenting venue may also view intervention and so would be unintended audiences |
Originality | Unique, surprising | |
Provocation | Fear, humour, warmth, irritation, sexual arousal, incongruity, ambiguity | |
Consistency of messages | Images and text match in terms of tone e.g. using of non-smiling actor + serious text vs. smiling actor with light-hearted tone | |
Tone | e.g. positive, empowering, informative, serious, humorous |
Social marketing principles and complexity
Social marketing mix | Low complexity | High complexity | |
---|---|---|---|
Product | Pre-testing | None | User informed |
Provider† | Static | Interactive | |
Content | Single | Multiple | |
Frequency and duration | One off/short | Long term | |
Imagery | Single | Multiple | |
Tone | Single | Multiple | |
Promotion | Segmentation and targeting | All youth | Tailored |
Modes of delivery | Single | Multiple | |
Place | Settings | Single | Multiple |
Price | Motivation | Absent | Present |
Competition | None/single | Multiple |
Patterning of effectiveness
Results
Intervention Name | Reference | Location of intervention | Intervention description | Overall visual analysis | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Focus of Intervention and aim | Target Audience | Type of intervention | Social context (Setting of intervention) | Reported target audience involvement in intervention design process | Visual images available for analysis | Use of actors in images | Tone and content | |||
Check it out Chlamydia hotline | [46] | USA | Chlamydia: (a) increase awareness of personal risk for chlamydial infection; (b) facilitate dissemination of chlamydia knowledge by use of a telephone hot line; and (c) promote care-seeking behavior (report for a chlamydia screening program). | 15–25-year-old individuals | mail outreach, a television and radio adverts, a prerecorded CheckIt-Out chlamydia hot line, a staffed chlamydia Options information line, and a free confidential urine ligase chain reaction (LCR) test for chlamydia. | wider community- media/ print | implied | No | Unknown | implied informative/ encouraging |
Chlamydia. Worth talking about | [48] | UK | Chlamydia: a) increasing chlamydia testing b) normalise conversations about the transmission of chlamydia c) raise awareness of the risk of untreated infection d) explain the process of diagnosis and treatment. | 15–24-year-old individuals | national TV, radio, on-line and poster advertising | wider community- online and print/ media | no | yes | no | Positive. Reassuring. Empowering. |
couldihaveit | [52] | Australia | Chlamydia: to increase the number of requests for chlamydia testing | sexually active 15–24 year-olds | Radio advertisements, SMSs, poster advertisements, print advertisements, email advertisements sent via radio station electronic mailing lists, interactive website | wider community AND targeted to venues young adults would attend (pubs, universities, clubs etc.) | no | yes | yes-peer representatives | Provocative. Cautionary. Informative, Sexualised elements |
Get Checked Omaha | [51] | USA | Chlamydia and Gonorrhea: reduce rates of chlamydia and gonorrhea among young people 15 to 24 years of age. to communicate that no one is immune to STIs and emphasize the importance of STI testing to decrease perceived stigma and increase the demand for testing. | 15 to 24 years of age | conventional (billboards, newspaper ads, radio ads) and digital (pre-roll ads, Facebook ads) mediums, a Website, Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube accounts | wider community- digital and print/ media | no | yes | yes-peer representatives | Various: provocative, fear/ disgust, positive/ normalising |
Get Yourself Tested (GYT) | [38] [39] [41] [42] [43] | USA | Sexually Transmitted Diseases: increase STD awareness and perceived risk, reduce fear and stigma, and promote open communication with sex partners and health care providers. | under 25 years of age | television, Web, print, short message service (SMS), and on-the-ground efforts to reach youth with information and link them to testing. | wider community, digital and print/ media | yes- formative research | yes | no | empowerment-based approach; positive framing, anti-stigma; normalizing discussions and testing |
Get Yourself Tested (adapted) | [40] | USA | Sexually Transmitted Diseases: to promote and routinize STD testing and treatment | sexually active youth, ages 15 to 25 years | postcard and posters, pins and stickers, online and social media outreach, website | wider community- online and print/ media | yes- formative research and materials testing | yes | yes-peer representatives | Empowering. Informative. Non-stigmatising, sexualised elements |
Gimmie 5 min | [50] | UK | HIV: challenged the reader to read the accompanying text, which covered the key issues of a pre-test discussion, and then to make a decision about whether they should HIV test. | those under the age of 25 years old and those of Black or South European origin | posters and credit card-sized leaflets | community gay men’s venues | no | yes | yes-peer representatives | Sexualised elements, Informative, Non-judgemental |
HIV. Live with it. Get tested. | [44] | USA | HIV: To change youth attitudes about HIV testing and promote more routine testing practices to health providers with the project goal of improving HIV counselling, testing and care among at-risk youth. | sexually active youth of colour in high seroprevalence communities, particularly heterosexual females and homosexual/bisexual males | palm-cards, advertising (print, radio, and video), a youth-friendly magazine or “’zine”, a video news release | wider community and targeted to sites/ media outlets of relevance to youth | yes- formative research | yes | yes-peer representatives | edgy, cool. Instructive. |
Iknowushould2 | [47] | USA | Sexually transmitted infections (STIs)/ HIV: improve knowledge about and increasing testing for sexually transmitted infections (STIs)/HIV | Targeted youth with a primary focus on youth 13–17 years old in Philadelphia (intervention also included youth 18–24 years old) | traditional media (print advertisements, t-shirts, radio, hotline), new media (website, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube), events, and community outreach and partnership | Adverts and events strategically targeted to locations of relevance to youths | yes-coalition provided feedback on branding and content | yes | yes-peer representatives | Peer, positive, private, anti-stigma |
Man Up Monday | [45] | USA | Sexually transmitted infections, particularly Chlamydia: to (a) increase awareness of sexual health and chlamydia testing; (b) motivate students, particularly sexually active men who do not pursue regular sexually transmitted infection (STI) testing, to get tested; and (c) improve the capacity of the student health centre to provide free chlamydia testing and treatment for all students | male students at university campus | Mass e-mails, social-media marketing, website, printed materials, posters, campus television and radio interviews, key chains designed to hold condoms (“keypers”), t-shirts, and shorts | college campus, residential halls, online | No | yes | no | reassuring, empowerment, humour |
TESTme screening service | [54] | Australia | Sexually transmitted infections: Advertising TESTme screening service | young people (< 25 years) living in rural areas and healthcare providers | websites, a Facebook page, posters, flyers, business cards, wrist bands and professional development sessions for health nurses, advertisements in newspapers, student diaries and short messages to mobile phones | wider community- online and print/ text | No | No- website only | Unknown | Unknown |
VCT | [31] | Kenya | HIV: To increase public demand for VCT Phase 1: to build knowledge of and confidence in VCT services, create links between consumers and VCT centers, and launch the VCT logo Phase 2: targeted urban youth (15–24 years) to encourage testing/ know status Phase 3: establishing a norm to know each other’s HIV status during key life events. Phase 4: overtly discussed HIV and AIDS. It targeted male family decision makers and established couples | Phase 1: 15–39-year-olds residing in urban and periurban communities Phase 2: aged 15-24 Phase 3: young couples Phase 4: male family decision makers and established couples | Signboards with the logo at registered VCT sites meeting quality assurance standards, radio, television, posters, flyers, and signage (billboards, street signs). | wider community | no | yes | yes-peer and celebrity | Phase 2 had specific upbeat focus |
you never know who you’ll meet | [49] | Australia | Sexually transmitted infections, particularly Chlamydia: To raise awareness of STI, and to promote condom use and STI testing among young people. | heterosexuals aged 18–25 years in Victoria | print and broadcast media, public and internet advertising, and person-to-person methods (Peer-led education) | wider community and youth-targeted venues | implied | yes | yes-peer representatives | Provocative, cautionary, possibly fear based. |
Intervention name not provided | [57] | Denmark | Chlamydia: To recruit individuals for C trachomatis testing by use of mailed home obtained samples | individuals aged 21–23 who lived in Aarhus county, Denmark | Online, press (TV/radio/print) releases/ interviews radio interviews, posters and leaflets | Wider community: Online, media (print/TV/radio), venues targeting youth (e.g. halls of residence/ education centres), transportation | no | No | unknown | unknown- paper implies informative |
Visual design analysis
Appearance and compositional aspects of the actor(s), settings and props
Social position of the viewer
Supporting the visual
Social context of viewing
Combined effects of visual design elements
Social marketing component analysis
Theory and behavioural goals
Insight and customer orientation
Segmentation/ targeting
Motivation and competition
Marketing mix
Effectiveness and design elements
Intervention Name | Reference | Effectiveness and Intervention complexity | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Intervention had limited or no effect on testing or antecedents to testing | Intervention had an indirect effect on testing | Intervention was indicative of clear behaviour change in desired direction | ||
Check it out Chlamydia hotline | [46] | low overall complexity | ||
Chlamydia. Worth talking about | [48]† | low overall complexity | ||
couldihaveit | [52]† | low overall complexity | ||
Get Checked Omaha | [51]† | low overall complexity | ||
Get Yourself Tested (GYT) | [38]† | low overall complexity | ||
[39]† | high overall complexity | |||
[41]† | low overall complexity | |||
[42]† | high overall complexity | |||
[43]† | low overall complexity | |||
Get Yourself Tested (adapted) | [40]† | high overall complexity | ||
Gimmie 5 min | [50]† | high overall complexity | ||
HIV. Live with it. Get tested. | [44]† | high overall complexity | ||
Iknowushould2 | [47]† | high overall complexity | ||
Man Up Monday | [45]† | high overall complexity | ||
TESTme screening service | [54] | low overall complexity | ||
VCT | [31]† | low overall complexity | ||
you never know who you’ll meet | [49]† | high overall complexity | ||
Intervention name not provided | [57] | low overall complexity |