Introduction
Although radiotherapy, a type of head and neck cancer patients’ treatment, is considered a cytotoxic tumor control, it can generate protective antitumor immune responses through immunogenic cell death. Nevertheless, it has many side effects, either during or after irradiation including dry mouth, sore throat, swallowing difficulties as well as tissue fibrosis [
1].
Diabetes mellitus (DM) is a widespread chronic metabolic serious health disorder and a rapidly progressing worrying disease owing to its ability to affect younger age individuals. Diabetes mellitus type 2 (T
2DM) presents about 90% of the total prevalence of DM and is remarked by impaired insulin resistance in addition to βpancreatic cell malfunction resulting in hyperglycemia [
2]. Additionally, it adversely affects carbohydrate, lipid, and protein metabolism [
3]. Chronic hyperglycemia may be associated with some oral alterations such as reduced salivary flow, periodontal disease, burning mouth, taste alterations, delayed healing, infections and halitosis [
4].
Alternative medicines as plant-based drugs have been recommended by the world health organization (WHO) for the treatment of DM [
3]. Due to their minimum side effects and low costs, the value of alternative medicines has raised researchers’ attention in traditional herbal medicine; even when their active ingredients are obscure. Metformin, a natural product, is extracted from the plant
Galega officinalis. It is considered as the first option for managing diabetic patients due to its superior hypoglycemic effect without affecting insulin secretion [
5]. Quercetin is one of the flavonoids extracted from the fruits of pharmaceutical plants, such as
Vaccinium oxycoccos and
Phyllanthus emblica. It has notable anti-hyperglycemic effects with lower side effects compared to metformin [
3]. Accordingly the aim of this study was to detect whether using metformin and/or quercetin will improve gamma-irradiation induced tongue toxicity in diabetic rats or not.
Methods
Animals & grouping
The experiment was conducted in compliance with the protocol approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the National Center for Radiation Research and Technology (REC-NCRRT), Egyptian Atomic Energy Authority, under the serial number 26 A / 22. Thirty five male albino rats weighting 200 ± 20 g. and approximately 8 weeks old were used and kept in polypropylene/stainless steel cages having dimensions of 54, 37 and 27 cm, and submitted to suitable ventilation, humidity max 55%, controlled temperature (25 max 28 °C) and light/dark regime (12 h of light/dark cycle) with pellet diet and drinkable water ad libitum.
Animals were randomly divided into five groups (n = 7): group NOR negative control (no diabetes, no radiation and no treatment), group DR positive control; rats were subjected to streptozotocin (STZ) injection followed by gamma-irradiation, group DRM; rats were subjected to STZ injection then gamma-irradiation followed by metformin application, group DRQ; rats were subjected to STZ injection followed by gamma-irradiation then quercetin application, group DRMQ; rats were subjected to STZ injection followed by gamma-irradiation then metformin and quercetin application. Rats were euthanized once 24 h after the last treatment dose by an over dose anesthesia (Ketamine).
Diabetes mellitus induction
Rats of groups DR, DRM, DRQ and DRMQ were fasted overnight before the DM induction using STZ. Afterwards, they were intra-peritoneally injected by 35 mg/kg body weight STZ (dissolved in 0.1 M citrate buffer, pH 4.5) once at the beginning of the study. Then, they were fed 4 h after STZ injection to avoid the expected hypoglycemic shock [
6]. Rats of NOR group received 0.1 ml citrate buffer& distilled water. The fasting blood glucose level (mg/dL) of different experimental groups was recorded 3 days after STZ injection using tail blood sampling with a glucometer (Perfecta, Granzia) and animals with blood glucose level above 250 mg / dl were defined as diabetic and included in the study.
Gamma-irradiation
Rats of groups DR, DRM, DRQ and DRMQ were subjected to 2 Gy of whole body gamma-irradiation twice; one week and two weeks after STZ injection [
7]. Irradiation was performed at The National Center for Radiation Research and Technology (NCRRT), using Gamma cell 40 (Cs 137) at dose rate of 0.37 Gy/min.
Rats of groups DRM, DRQ and DRMQ were treated with 200 mg/kg body weight metformin [
8] (Sigma-Aldrich, USA), 30 mg/kg body weight quercetin [
9] (Sigma-Aldrich, USA) or both, respectively dissolved in 0.1 ml distilled water and applied orally daily for 4 weeks starting 48 h after the second dose of gamma-irradiation.
Blood glucose level
At the end of the experiment and before euthanasia, the fasting blood glucose level (mg/dL) of different experimental groups was recorded using tail blood sampling with a glucometer.
Histological procedures
Specimens of tongue were fixed in 10% formalin and embedded in paraffin. Five µm thickness sections were cut and stained with hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) and CD68 immunohistochemical staining (Rabbit polyclonal anti-CD68 antibodies). Histopathological changes of the tongue were observed under light microscope. Histomorphometric analysis of the length, diameter (at base & apex) and taste buds of different lingual papillae as well as epithelial, keratin and lamina propria thickness and number of CD68 positive cells were evaluated in 10 histological fields (x400) then randomly captured with a digitized image analysis system using the software Leica Qwin 500.
Statistical analysis
Data were subjected to one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and expressed as mean and standard deviation and multiple range tests was used when differences among groups were significant using Statgraphics Centurion XVI software, Statpoint Technologies, Inc., 560 Broadview Ave. Warrenton, Virginia 20,182. The significant level was set to 0.05 for all tests.
Discussion
The tongue, a vital organ that has multiple essential physiological functions, is the mirror of general health or disease especially its filiform papillae [
10]. Diabetes mellitus is the fifth most widespread chronic condition and the sixth most common cause of death amongst elderly. The morphologic and cytomorphometric alterations in the buccal mucosa of diabetic patients can be attributed to diabetes mellitus itself [
4]. Streptozotocin (STZ) is being used for DM induction due to its potential to selectively destruct the β-cell in pancreatic islets and impair insulin secretion [
6]. It simulates diabetes mellitus type 1 (T
1DM) when being used at high doses and type 2 (T
2DM) when being used at low doses [
11].
Radiotherapy of diabetic patients due to head and neck tumor is damaging to the oral tissues. Gamma radiation induces defective alterations in the tongue as well as the serous acini of the lingual minor salivary glands [
12]. Development of new drugs for the management of diabetes is needed for better safety as the standard therapeutic drugs have many adverse effects, thus traditional medicine using medicinal plants is commonly used by clinicians for the treatment of diabetes [
10].
In our study, the blood glucose level of irradiated diabetic rats was abnormally high. Treatment with either metformin or quercetin alone significantly reduced the glucose level besides; the combined treatment significantly reduced it although all treatments did not reach the normal level. Also, diabetes and gamma radiation induced multiple histological alteration of the tongue. The tongue showed decreased epithelial thickness and papillae height, distortion of lingual papillae with complete atrophy in many areas, loss of fungiform taste buds and increased keratinization. The muscular layer revealed some atrophied muscle fibers with wide connective tissue septa infiltrated with inflammatory cells with aggregates of fat cells. The mucous acini lost its foamy appearance while serous exhibited cytoplasmic vacuolization with loss of the outline.
Similar changes were reported by
Fakhr et al. [
13] and
Khalil and Nagui [
14] in tongues of diabetic rats. The filiform papillae were shorter, distorted with hyperkeratosis while the fungiform appeared slightly elongated with abnormal taste buds. Loss of normal connective tissue papillae was also detected. In STZ induced diabetic mice model, the pancreatic islets were infiltrated with inflammatory cells with significant increment of IL-1 and TNF- α cytokines [
15]. The sensitivity of filiform papillae to damage than fungiform ones could be attributed to their high metabolic activity [
10]. The above-mentioned changes could be related to chronic inflammation, changes in innervations and microvasculature secondary to diabetes [
16]. Hyperkeratosis associated with diabetes was explained by increased gene expression of keratin associated proteins and keratin complexes [
17]. Taste buds affection probably caused by neuropathy affecting function of taste nerves and/or microangiopathy affecting taste buds [
18]. The alterations of lingual salivary glands were in accordance with
Hassan and Alqahtani [
19] who reported decreased sized acini with loss of normal arrangement and indefinite lumen of the parotid glands of alloxan induced diabetes in dogs.
Also, similar results were reported by
El-Haddad and Metwaly [
12] regarding the effect of gamma radiation on tongue. Decreased connective tissue underlying the dorsal surface of the tongue containing inflammatory cells was detected. Fragmented areas in the muscle bundles in addition to isolated fatty degeneration were also found out. The mucous acini lost their outline with hyaline cytoplasmic appearance while the serous acini appeared small, distorted with heterogenicity of staining.
El-Rouby and El-Batouti [
20] noticed disrupted architecture of basal cells, some areas of keratin loss, mild chronic inflammatory cell infiltrate and areas of degeneration in the underlying lamina propria in gamma-irradiated rat’s tongue. Salivary gland damage in response to gamma radiation could be related to direct injury of micro vascular endothelial cells with reduced micro vessel density [
21].
Antioxidant enzymes in our body protect us against free radicals. However, when reactive oxygen species (ROS) overwhelm the antioxidant enzymes, it results in a state known as oxidative stress [
22]. It is believed that most of the diabetic complications are related to an increase in oxidative stress in diabetic patients [
23].
Metformin (dimethylbiguanide) has become one of the most favorite medications used to control T
2DM and prescribed either in monotherapy or combined with other anti-hyperglycemic drug [
24]. Moreover, metformin has an insulin sensitizing effect that affects almost all tissues including skeletal muscle, the adipose tissue, liver, endothelium and ovary [
25]. In addition, metformin has been proven to have multifunctional profiles including anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer actions as well as cardiovascular protection [
26].
In our study, metformin administration significantly reduced the blood glucose level as compared to irradiated diabetic group. Moreover, it provided little restoration for the lingual papillae and its taste buds with more restoration for tongue minor salivary glands and muscles however; it did not reach the normal structure. Similar result was obtained by
Cheng et al. [
27] who reported a reduction of blood glucose concentration with metformin treatment. In addition, metformin slightly preserved the skeletal muscles of diabetic rats with muscle fiber separation, some apoptotic nuclei and moderate amount of collagen fibers between muscle fibers [
28].
Chakraborty et al. [
29] assigned the histological improvement to the ability of metformin to restore the antioxidant status thus reduction of the oxidative stress. Metformin improves the negative effects of diabetes and gamma radiation. It was found that metformin treatment before irradiation improved the histological alterations and inflammation of the intestinal mucosa [
30], diminished histopathological alterations of cardiac muscle [
31] and suppressed chronic oxidative damage in mice bone marrow stem cells [
32]. The radio-protective activity of metformin is based on several mechanisms such as; regulation of the cellular metabolism, diminish ROS production, scavenging free radicals directly or via the stimulation of antioxidant enzymes and reduction of stem cell senescence [
32].
The anti-inflammatory effect of metformin against diabetes and gamma irradiation as indicated by reduced CD68 expression was in accordance with
Han et al. [
15] who proved that metformin inhibited the pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-1 and TNF-α, in the pancreatic tissues of STZ induced diabetic mice that may partially explained the amelioration of the histopathological changes due to diabetes. Also,
Obafemi et al. [
33] found a significant reduction of hepatic and pancreatic IL-6 and TNF-α due to metformin treatment of diabetic rats. Accordingly, metformin can modulate radiation induced damage through inhibition of inflammation signaling pathways. It was found that sildenafil significantly improved the oral mucosal structure that was severely destructed after exposure to high dose of radiation through inhibition of inflammatory cell infiltration and reduction of the levels of nitric oxide, IL1β, IL6 and TNF-α [
34].
Our results demonstrated that quercetin treatment was more able to restore the histopathological alterations of filiform and fungiform papillae as well as the ventral surface induced by diabetes and gamma irradiation. Although quercetin was able to improve the pathological effects on salivary glands, it did not provide a significant improvement with regard the muscles. The aforementioned results were in line with
Khalil and Nagui [
14] who found that quercetin treatment of diabetic rats restored the structure of both; filiform and fungiform papillae however, thick keratin layer persisted. The amelioration effect of quercetin could be attributed to many reasons; first, its hypoglycemic effect via pancreatic βcells regeneration might enhanced insulin secretion and sensitivity with decreased insulin resistance [
35], second, quercetin might inhibited caspase 3 expression [
14] as well as suppression of ATPase and hexokinase enzyme with stimulated mitochondrial function [
36].
Quercetin exerts its anti-diabetic action by reducing intestinal glucose absorption, influencing lipid peroxidation, and enhancing the antioxidant enzymes activity in the body [
37]. On the other hand, quercetin pretreatment of irradiated mice significantly reduced ulcers formation as well as their sizes allowing more healing capability and resulting in slightly disordered thin epithelium with maintained integrity. The effect of quercetin was explained by maintenance of proliferative activity and reduction of cellular senescence of the basal epithelial cells of the oral mucosa through up regulation of Ki67 and PCNA and down regulation of P21 and p16
[INK4A [38]]. The restorative effect of quercetin on salivary gland architecture may be related to the enhancement of AQP5 expression, which in turn enhances salivary secretion [
39].
Our data illustrated the beneficial effect of the combined use of metformin and quercetin than using each one alone. The lingual papillae appeared of normal size, shape and orientation covered with uniform layer of thin keratin with taste buds restoration. The structure of muscle fibers and both serous and mucous salivary glands was restored and was almost similar to those of the control. These results matches those obtained by
Eldamarawi et al. [
40] who found that the combined treatment of diabetic rats with metformin and quercetin reduced plasma glucose, insulin level and plasma level of IL-1 and TNF-α however they increased some enzymes activities in the skeletal muscle. The effect of this combination on the abovementioned parameters was better than each one alone and reached a level comparable to control.
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