A mixed method investigation of teacher-identified barriers, facilitators and recommendations to implementing daily physical activity in Ontario elementary schools

The current study used a sequential mixed-method approach to better understand the teacher-identified factors influencing DPA in elementary school classrooms within Ontario. Survey results showed while most teachers do implement DPA, the majority fail to meet the recommended 20 min per day. Recurring barriers of available space and time and inadequate training were identified across all teachers, and specific barriers related to lower ratings of self-efficacy were identified among teachers who did not implement DPA. Intrapersonal factors of gender, physical activity engagement, experience teaching, and prior DPA training did not relate to the likelihood of DPA implementation. Promisingly, teachers noted improved attention and learning following DPA and were open to greater implementation if provided with more resources and training. Teacher interviews highlighted several key recommendations for DPA implementation including greater training opportunities, resources, community partnerships, accountability and strategies that support school-wide implementation. The following will discuss the survey and interview results in relation to existing literature, novel contributions, and study limitations.

Survey results demonstrated that most teachers incorporated some form of DPA into their classroom (87%) and that they were comfortable implementing DPA in most courses with language and math specifically noted. However, the average weekly implementation of DPA was only 64.5 min per week, which falls well below the recommended 100 min per week (20 min per day). In fact, only 23% of teachers met the mandated 100 min per week. This is markedly lower than the 50% found in prior work by Allison et al. [30] who had a similar sample size of 209 surveyed Ontario teachers. The lower percentage of DPA fidelity in the current study raises concerns over whether DPA implementation is further declining in Ontario elementary schools. Most teachers indicated that their DPA includes an academic component (79%) which suggests most classes are learning while engaging in physical activity. The most common activities included movement videos and dancing, and the most common duration implemented was between 1 and 5 min. Teachers indicated the most observed benefits of DPA were increased focus and learning, and 76.5% of teachers believed that their students enjoyed DPA. This finding aligns with prior work indicating students enjoy classroom DPA [38, 41, 51]. The most common barriers identified were lack of time and available space, which also supports previous findings [30, 32, 35‐38, 40, 41]. Additionally, despite previous recommendations to the Ontario Ministry of Education [30] that teachers receive more DPA training, the current work found that more than half of teachers still received no DPA training (58.5%). Most teachers who reported not implementing DPA indicated that they would consider implementation (81.5%) if provided with greater access to resources, knowledge, and training around DPA implementation. Interestingly, both implementors and non-implementors indicated that their peers supported their views on DPA implementation. This may suggest that those who implement DPA mainly discuss classroom physical activity with others who implement DPA, and those who do not implement DPA mainly discuss classroom physical activity with others who do not implement DPA. For non-implementors of DPA, this could potentially create a feedback loop where one’s teaching approaches are reinforced rather than challenged and diversified. This finding further underscores the importance of training opportunities where evidence-based perspectives on the benefits of DPA can be shared, while also creating a safe space to voice differing opinions on DPA. It is evident that there are many challenges associated with DPA implementation; ensuring everyone can voice their concerns while simultaneously receiving implementation support is an important part of the fidelity-promoting process.

Survey results also yielded several key distinctions between those who implemented DPA and those who did not implement DPA. Teachers who did not implement DPA had lower ratings of confidence and motivation for implementation, rated the implementation of DPA less feasible in their classroom, rated themselves as having less time in the day for DPA, and noted a higher incidence of student disruption during DPA. These results align with previous research showing that teacher self-efficacy is an important component of DPA implementation [30, 42, 52, 53], and that notable barriers include time constraints and student behavioural issues during DPA [30, 32, 35‐41]. Intrapersonal factors of gender, teaching experience (years), personal physical activity behaviour and prior DPA training did not relate to the likelihood of DPA implementation. Prior work suggested that years of teaching experience may be a key factor in the likelihood of teachers implementing DPA [34]; however, this work suggests that teaching experience did not relate to the likelihood of implementation. Furthermore, while previous work has suggested that teachers’ own physical activity and wellness experiences may impact their desire to implement DPA [34, 54, 55], the current study found no correlation between personal physical activity behaviour and likelihood of DPA implementation. The only intrapersonal factor that correlated with the likelihood of DPA implementation was self-rated physical fitness, such that teachers who rated themselves as being more physically fit were more likely to implement DPA. This finding supports previous interviews with teachers who stated that they believed colleagues who did not implement DPA had differing philosophical perspectives surrounding the benefit of DPA for classroom learning [34]. This finding also suggests that psychological perceptions of physical fitness may be as important as actual physical activity engagement when it comes to the likelihood of implementing DPA.

The barriers identified throughout the survey results are in alignment with both social ecological and social cognitive models. From a social ecological perspective, the barriers reflect a combination of intrapersonal, interpersonal, and institutional level factors impacting DPA implementation [30‐32, 56]. Importantly, while institutional factors were rated as impacting DPA implementation when all teachers were considered together, when considering implementors versus non-implementors separately, institutional factors was not as significant of a driving force in their DPA differences. Rather, greater emphasis was on intrapersonal, interpersonal, and classroom-level factors. This finding aligns closely with work by Allison et al. [59] who concluded that teacher-level and classroom-level factors were the most likely to impact DPA fidelity. These results could be viewed as a positive finding given that factors closer to an individual’s influence (intrapersonal, classroom) may be easier to modify to exact behaviour change [31‐35, 56, 57]. From a social cognitive perspective, self-efficacy was a major component in DPA implementation, such that teachers who had higher ratings of self-efficacy were more likely to implement DPA [33, 34]. Identification was another component important to DPA implementation, such that teachers who identified as more physically fit were more likely to implement DPA. This is also related to social ecological intrapersonal factors and emphasizes the importance of creating a broader culture that values physical activity and its influence on overall wellbeing, including cognitive and academic achievement [58‐60].

Interview results elucidated important areas for supporting DPA implementation. Teachers requested a combination of DPA training opportunities and access to diverse and realistic activities. This reflects specific barriers identified in the survey results and in prior research, such as the need for accessible resources that target diverse ages, cultures, and physical space restrictions [30, 32, 34, 35, 40]. Although there are some resources available to teachers to support DPA implementation (e.g., OPHEA), the awareness of these resources may be the key limiting factor. Better connecting teachers with available resources through professional development opportunities, or during preservice programming, may help support their ability to implement DPA. Insufficient training has appeared numerous times in previous research as a significant barrier to DPA [30, 32, 34, 35, 40] and this study underscores how teachers recognize this as a significant area of need for their professional development. From a social cognitive theory perspective, the desire for mastery experiences with a knowledgeable model offers a step towards increasing self-efficacy [33], which is an essential intrapersonal factor to promote DPA fidelity [30, 34, 42, 52, 53].

Teachers also noted that training opportunities should emphasize the evidence-based benefits of DPA for student learning and wellbeing. Useful information could include how children who engage in classroom DPA are more likely to meet the WHO’s recommendation of 60 min of daily physical activity [22], are more likely to perform better in school [19‐21, 23, 24], are more likely to be joyful and motivated to learn [19] and are more likely to spend time on task in the classroom [61]. This suggestion is related to previously identified barriers involving the devaluing of physical activity at intrapersonal and school levels [32, 35, 40]. Both social cognitive and social ecological theories agree that behaviour modification requires a shift in beliefs at both personal and systemic levels. Interestingly, recent work by Allison et al. [56] aimed to identify the extent to which school (administrative) factors versus teacher and classroom factors influenced DPA implementation and found that the most effective way to address DPA fidelity was to target teacher and classroom factors; these factors included teachers’ DPA perceptions, teachers’ self-efficacy, classroom DPA scheduling, and issues surrounding lack of space and time. The current study echoes these findings by further emphasizing the particularly important role that teachers’ perceptions and their self-efficacy, along with classroom barriers such as lack of space and time, play in the success of DPA. Together these studies suggest that implementation fidelity may be better supported by focusing less on school/administrator predictors of DPA, and focusing more on teacher and classroom predictors of DPA. Furthermore, infusing DPA training with the science behind the benefits of classroom-based physical activity for cognitive and psycho-emotional functioning is a viable catalyst to encourage greater teacher involvement in DPA. Additionally, finding solutions for the recurring theme of lack of space is imperative [30, 34, 56]. Teachers suggested creating designated DPA spaces, such as unused classrooms. Although not all schools may be able to support this suggestion, it highlights how teachers are expected to implement DPA but feel that there is a lack of available space.

Teachers also suggested support from the community to help teachers implement DPA through volunteer, elders, sports organizations, and community activity initiatives. Community involvement would not only help ease teachers’ DPA demands, but it could also directly help community partners. For example, sports organizations that run a DPA example of their sport may benefit from an increase in sign up by students. High school students who need volunteer hours could also organize a class’s DPA to benefit the teachers, older students, as well as bring new excitement to the class. Work by Tremblay and colleagues [8] similarly suggested integrating community-based resources with preschool education to promote DPA. The current work elucidates a similar recognition of the benefit of community partnerships to support DPA at the elementary level. Importantly, the integration of community may enhance social norms around the value of DPA as well as provide teachers with opportunities for observational learning and modelling DPA positive behaviours [30, 32, 34, 35, 40, 56].

Teachers recommended policy revitalization to foster implementation of DPA through enhanced administration and teacher responsibility. Currently, the mandate does not specify who is directly responsible for ensuring students achieve their 20 min of DPA [62]. It may be helpful for roles at various staff levels to be clearly defined in a revised policy. Having different staff responsible for implementing, enforcing, and ensuring adequate resources are available could increase and distribute accountability. While teachers only specified policy changes related to accountability, many of the key areas identified as recommendations could embed policy. The importance of accountability in DPA fidelity has been identified as a central factor in several prior studies [8, 22, 30, 58, 63, 64]. Furthermore, the current study identified policies for key areas such as teacher education, training, and more specific guidelines, as well as the integration of community-based resources and services.

Additionally, teachers recommended initiating or reinstating school-wide DPA engagement. Some teachers reported that their school once had some form of school-wide implementation, such as an activity over the morning announcements in which the whole school participated. These teachers found it helpful for time management as DPA was always at a scheduled time and fostered a positive DPA school culture. Reasons as to why the school-wide DPA was removed from some schools remains unclear. Further, teachers who did not have experience with a school-wide DPA activity endorsed this initiative, citing it would help alleviate their stress with meeting academic demands by having one less responsibility. This recommendation is supported by prior work arguing that addressing school-level barriers to DPA is integral to promoting classroom implementation [30, 32, 34, 35, 40, 56].

Similar to the survey results, elements of both the social cognitive theory and social ecological model were found throughout the interview outcomes, with the most distinct findings around social ecological model levels such as intrapersonal, interpersonal, institutional and community [30, 35, 56‐60]. Teachers’ recommendations targeted their social support and connection among different levels of their social environment, as well as their self-efficacy through training and modelling opportunities [30, 34, 56, 57]. Components of the social cognitive theory that were most frequently identified included self-efficacy, behavioural capability, expectations, and observational learning [32, 34]. Interviews offered an in-depth perspective on DPA recommendations directly from teachers and is a vital step towards identifying ways to better support DPA fidelity. An important area for future investigation is examining how pre-service teacher education can support DPA training even before teachers enter the classroom.