Background
Methods
Study setting and design
Sample size and sampling procedure
Data collection and measurement of study variables
Quality control
Microbial water quality analysis
Data management and analysis
Results
Characteristics of study health facilities
Description. | Characteristic | Frequency (N = 60) | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|---|
District | Kampala | 19 | 31.7 |
Mukono | 14 | 23.3 | |
Wakiso | 27 | 45.0 | |
Level of HCF | Health centre III | 42 | 70.0 |
Health Centre IV | 7 | 11.7 | |
Hospital | 11 | 18.3 | |
Ownership | Public | 39 | 65.0 |
PNFP | 21 | 35.0 |
Water service
Description | Characteristic | Frequency (n = 60) | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Main water source (n = 58)a | Borehole | 1 | 1.7 |
Protected dug well | 2 | 3.4 | |
Piped supply from outside the HCF | 41 | 70.7 | |
Rainwater | 13 | 22.4 | |
Tanker truck | 1 | 1.7 | |
Location of main water source (n = 58)a | Off premises, within 500 m | 3 | 5.2 |
Off premises, further than 500 m | 1 | 1.7 | |
On premises | 54 | 93.1 | |
Instances of discontinuity (when water from the main water source is unavailable?) (n = 58)a | Yes | 44 | 75.9 |
No | 14 | 24.1 | |
Frequency of discontinuity in water supply (n = 58)a | For part of the day, frequently | 9 | 15.5 |
For part of the day, rarely | 15 | 25.9 | |
For part of the year (seasonal problem frequently) | 8 | 13.8 | |
For part of the year (seasonal problem rarely) | 11 | 19.0 | |
Water is always available | 14 | 24.1 | |
Do not know | 1 | 1.7 | |
HCF at times faces a severe water shortage (n = 44)a | Yes | 14 | 31.8 |
No | 28 | 63.7 | |
Don’t know | 2 | 4.5 | |
HCF has an alternative water source | Yes, and the alternative source is improved | 36 | 60.0 |
Yes, but the alternative source is unimproved | 3 | 5.0 | |
No alternative water source | 17 | 28.3 | |
Have alternative source but water is unavailable | 3 | 5.0 | |
Do not know | 1 | 1.7 | |
Water accessible to all users at all times at HCF | Yes | 55 | 94.8 |
No, patients/caregivers do not have access at times | 2 | 3.4 | |
No, both staff and patients/caregivers do not have access at times | 1 | 1.8 | |
Water is available from the main water source at the time of the survey | Yes | 56 | 93.3 |
No | 4 | 6.7 | |
Is water piped into the wards | Yes | 35 | 58.3 |
Yes, but currently unavailable | 3 | 5.0 | |
No | 22 | 36.7 | |
Water at HCF meets the WHO microbial water quality standards (n = 58)a | < 50% of all samples met | 6 | 10.3 |
50–89% of all samples met | 1 | 1.7 | |
90–100% of all samples met | 51 | 87.9 |
Sanitation service
Description | Characteristic | Frequency (n = 60) | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Type of toilet facilities available at HCF | Flush | 23 | 38.3 |
Pour flush | 4 | 6.7 | |
Pit latrine with a slab | 7 | 11.7 | |
Ventilated Improved Pit latrine | 20 | 33.3 | |
Pit latrine without a slab | 5 | 8.3 | |
No toilet facility | 1 | 1.7 | |
Method of excreta disposal at the HCF (n = 58)a | Sewerage system | 14 | 24.1 |
Septic tank | 15 | 25.9 | |
Pit or chamber | 28 | 48.3 | |
No toilet facility | 1 | 1.7 | |
Main users of toilet blocks at HCF | Both staff and patients/ caregiver | 16 | 26.7 |
Both staff and patients/ caregiver, but separated | 15 | 25.0 | |
Patients/ caregivers only | 28 | 46.7 | |
Staff only | 1 | 1.7 | |
Presence of flies in improved toilets | Present in all toilets | 5 | 8.3 |
Absent in all toilets | 41 | 68.3 | |
Present in some toilets | 13 | 21.7 | |
No toilet facility | 1 | 1.7 | |
Presence of unpleasant smell (of urine or faeces) at the toile/latrine block | Yes | 27 | 45.0 |
No | 32 | 53.3 | |
No toilet facility | 1 | 1.7 | |
Visible cleanliness of HCF toilet blocks | Yes | 45 | 75.0 |
No | 14 | 23.3 | |
No toilet facility | 1 | 1.7 | |
Adequacy of lighting at the toilet blocks, including at night | Yes | 32 | 53.3 |
No | 27 | 45.0 | |
No toilet facility | 1 | 1.7 | |
Provision for menstrual hygiene needs (n = 59)a | Yes | 18 | 30.5 |
No | 41 | 69.5 | |
Presence of lockable doors | Present on all toilets | 56 | 93.3 |
Present on some toilets | 1 | 1.7 | |
No toilet facility | 1 | 1.7 | |
Presence of an improved toilet that meets the needs of people with reduced mobility (n = 58)a | Present | 12 | 20.0 |
Absent | 46 | 76.7 | |
Did not observe | 1 | 1.7 | |
No toilet facility | 1 | 1.7 | |
Gender-based separation of toilet blocks | Both males and females, unseparated | 9 | 15.0 |
Both males and females, but separated | 43 | 71.7 | |
Females only | 8 | 13.3 |
Hand hygiene service
Description | Characteristic | Frequency (n = 60) | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Status of hand hygiene facilities in the patient care areas | No supplies available | 6 | 10.0 |
Water only | 17 | 28.3 | |
Water and sanitiser available | 1 | 1.7 | |
Water and soap available | 35 | 58.3 | |
Water, soap and sanitiser available | 1 | 1.7 | |
HCF has functioning hand hygiene facilities within five meters of the toilet block | Hand hygiene facilities available but non- functional | 2 | 3.3 |
Did not observe | 1 | 1.7 | |
No toilet facility | 1 | 1.7 | |
Hand hygiene facilities not available | 6 | 10.0 | |
Hand hygiene facilities available with water only | 24 | 40.0 | |
Hand hygiene facilities available with both water and soap | 26 | 43.3 |
Environmental cleanliness service
Description | Characteristic | Frequency (n = 60) | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Open defecation practiced (visible faecal matter at the HCF) | No | 57 | 95.0 |
Yes | 1 | 1.7 | |
Did not observe (No access) | 2 | 3.3 | |
Containment of babies’ faeces | Well contained | 49 | 81.7 |
Not well contained | 10 | 16.7 | |
Didn’t observe | 1 | 1.7 | |
HCF has uncontained solid waste | Yes | 12 | 20.0 |
No | 48 | 80.0 | |
HCFs had clean floors | Yes | 53 | 88.3 |
No | 7 | 11.7 | |
Beds, mattresses, pillows and/or mats cleaned between patients | Yes, always | 46 | 79.3 |
Yes, sometimes | 4 | 6.9 | |
No inpatient | 1 | 1.7 | |
Beddings not provided | 7 | 12.1 | |
HCFs have unclean bodily spills | Yes | 2 | 3.3 |
No | 58 | 96.7 |
Waste management service
Description | Characteristic | Frequency, n | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|---|
Availability of protected areas for the storage of HCW awaiting disposal or removal (n = 57) a | Yes | 36 | 63.2 |
Sometimes | 2 | 3.5 | |
No | 19 | 33.3 | |
Commonest means of treating infectious waste (n = 58) a | Autoclave | 4 | 6.9 |
Chemical disinfection with hypochlorite | 12 | 20.7 | |
Not treated | 34 | 58.6 | |
Other | 8 | 13.8 | |
Commonest method of disposal of infectious waste disposed? (n = 58) a | Incinerate (brick incinerator) | 12 | 20.7 |
Incinerate (two chamber, 850–100 °C) | 4 | 6.9 | |
Burn in protected pit | 5 | 8.6 | |
Burry in a lined, protected pit | 2 | 3.4 | |
Collect for medical waste disposal offsite | 16 | 27.6 | |
Collected for general waste disposal offsite | 4 | 6.9 | |
Open burning | 14 | 24.1 | |
Don’t know | 1 | 1.7 | |
Main treatment method for sharps (n = 58) a | Autoclave | 4 | 6.9 |
Chemical disinfection with hypochlorite | 6 | 10.3 | |
Not treated | 34 | 58.6 | |
Other | 12 | 20.7 | |
Don’t know | 2 | 3.4 | |
Main disposal method for sharps (n = 58) a | Incinerate (brick incinerator) | 11 | 19.0 |
Incinerate (two chamber, 850–100 °C) | 3 | 5.2 | |
Burn in protected pit | 6 | 10.3 | |
Collected for medical waste disposal offsite | 22 | 37.9 | |
Collected for general waste disposal offsite | 4 | 6.9 | |
Open burning | 11 | 19.0 | |
Don’t know | 1 | 1.7 | |
Waste safely segregated into at least three labelled bins (for sharps, infectious waste and non-infectious waste) | Yes | 51 | 85.0 |
Bins present but waste is not segregated | 7 | 11.7 | |
No | 2 | 3.3 |
WASH service based on JMP service ladders
Availability of WASH services based on ownership and level of health facility
Score (Range) | Characteristic | Overall frequency (n) (%) | Ownership | Level of healthcare facility | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Public | PNFP | Hospital | HC IV | HC III | |||
Overall WASH service (Min score = 1.5, 3.0) | Basic | 7 (12.1) | 2 (5.6) | 5 (22.7) | 5 (45.5) | 1 (14.3) | 1 (2.5) |
Limited | 49 (84.5) | 34 (94.4) | 15 (68.2) | 6 (54.5) | 6 (85.7) | 37 (92.5) | |
Unimproved/No service | 2 (3.4) | 0 (0) | 2 (9.1) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 2 (5.0) | |
Water service (1.6, 3.0) | Basic | 27 (46.6) | 13 (36.1) | 14 (63.6) | 11 (100) | 3 (42.9) | 13 (32.5) |
Limited | 28 (48.3) | 22 (61.1) | 6 (27.3) | 0 (0) | 4 (57.1) | 24 (60.0) | |
Unimproved/No service | 3 (5.2) | 1 (2.8) | 2 (9.1) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 3 (7.5) | |
Sanitation service (1.5, 3.0) | Basic | 2 (3.4) | 0 (0) | 2 (9.1) | 0 (0) | 1 (14.3) | 1 (2.5) |
Limited | 49 (84.5) | 30 (83.3) | 19 (86.4) | 11 (100) | 5 (71.4) | 33 (82.5) | |
Unimproved/No service | 7 (12.1) | 6 (16.7) | 1 (4.5) | 0 (0) | 1 (14.3) | 6 (15.0) | |
Environmental cleanliness service (1.0, 3.0) | Basic | 23 (39.7) | 13 (36.1) | 10 (50.0) | 6 (54.5) | 1 (14.3) | 16 (40.0) |
Limited | 29 (50.0) | 20 (55.6) | [9] 45.5 | 5 (55.4) | 4 (57.1) | 23 (57.5) | |
Unimproved/No service | 6 (10.3) | 3 (8.3) | 2 (9.1) | 0 (0) | 2 (28.6) | 1 (2.5) | |
Hand hygiene service (1.4, 3.0) | Basic | 21 (36.2) | 10 (27.8) | 11 (50.0) | 6 (55.5) | 2 (28.6) | 13 (32.5) |
Limited | 33 (56.9) | 23 (63.9) | 10 (45.5) | 5 (45.5) | 5 (71.4) | 23 (57.5) | |
Unimproved/No service | 4 (6.9) | 3 (8.3) | 1 (4.5) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 4 (10.0) | |
Waste management service (1.5, 3.0) | Basic | 27 (46.6) | 16 (44.4) | 11 (50.0) | 9 (81.8) | 2 (28.6) | 16 (40.0) |
Limited | 30 (51.7) | 19 (52.8) | 11 (50.0) | 2 (18.2) | 5 (71.4) | 23 (57.5) | |
Unimproved/No service | 1 (1.7) | 1 (2.8) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 0 (0) | 1 (2.5) |