Background
Methods
Creation of socio-economic indices
Socio-economic status | Zimbabwe 1999 | Zambia 2001/2 | Zambia 1996 | Uganda 2000/1 | Uganda 1995/6 | Tanzania 1999 | Tanzania 1996 | Nigeria 2003 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st/poorest | 624 (24%) | 1826 (34%) | 624 (11%) | 1026 (20%) | 993 (22%) | 455 (20%) | 1769 (34%) | 918 (22%) |
2nd
| 607 (23%) | 1690 (31%) | 974 (19%) | 883 (20%) | 469 (20%) | 688 (16%) | ||
3rd
| 286 (11%) | 1547 (29%) | 687 (13%) | 1248 (25%) | 709 (16%) | 460 (20%) | 1421 (28%) | 1003 (23%) |
4th
| 655 (25%) | 936 (17%) | 1503 (28%) | 915 (18%) | 1026 (23%) | 474 (20%) | 850 (17%) | 710 (17%) |
5th/wealthy | 457 (17%) | 1092 (20%) | 949 (17%) | 938 (18%) | 861 (19%) | 474 (20%) | 1078 (21%) | 917 (22%) |
Total | 2629 | 5401 | 5453 | 5101 | 4772 | 2332 | 5118 | 4236 |
Nigeria 1999 | Namibia 2000 | Malawi 2000 | Kenya 2003 | Kenya 1998 | Ghana 2003 | Ghana 1998 | Cameroon 1998 | |
1st/poorest | 201 (15%) | 586 (20%) | 2187 (24%) | 920 (20%) | 573 (20%) | 457 (15%) | 528 (20%) | 324 (20%) |
2nd
| 283 (20%) | 575 (20%) | 1095 (12%) | 1258 (27%) | 553 (19%) | 852 (28%) | 798 (30%) | 361 (21%) |
3rd
| 244 (17%) | 473 (16%) | 1605 (18%) | 899 (19%) | 644 (23%) | 590 (19%) | 190 (08%) | 321 (19%) |
4th
| 316 (23%) | 678 (24%) | 2307 (25%) | 764 (16%) | 598 (21%) | 590 (19%) | 621 (24%) | 328 (20%) |
5th/wealthy | 356 (25%) | 577 (20%) | 1932 (21%) | 848 (18%) | 496 (17%) | 597 (19%) | 482 (18%) | 329 (20%) |
Total | 1400 | 2889 | 9126 | 4689 | 2864 | 3086 | 2619 | 1663 |
Data Analysis
Results
Country | Year of Study | Age in months |
Total
a
|
Mean Z-scores
a
| P-value | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Male | Female | Male | Female | ||||
Zimbabwe | 1999 | 0–59 | 1335 | 1297 | -1.16 (1.5) | -0.97 (1.6) | 0.002 |
Zambia | 2001/02 | 0–59 | 2723 | 2707 | -1.94 (1.5) | -1.84 (1.6) | 0.011 |
Zambia | 1996 | 0–59 | 2688 | 2815 | -1.80 (1.5) | -1.74 (1.5) | 0.147 |
Uganda | 2000/01 | 0–59 | 2548 | 2597 | -1.62 (1.5) | -1.55 (1.4) | 0.058 |
Uganda | 1995/6 | 0–47 | 2204 | 2315 | -1.57 (1.5) | -1.38 (1.5) | < 0.001 |
Tanzania | 1999 | 0–59 | 1272 | 1242 | -1.71 (1.3) | -1.64 (1.3) | 0.170 |
Tanzania | 1996 | 0–59 | 2668 | 2558 | -1.83 (1.4) | -1.70 (1.5) | 0.002 |
Nigeria | 2003 | 0–59 | 2165 | 2128 | -1.55 (1.8) | -1.39 (1.8) | 0.002 |
Nigeria | 1999 | 0–35 | 739 | 717 | -1.76 (2.1) | -1.50 (2.1) | 0.017 |
Namibia | 2000 | 0–59 | 1472 | 1437 | -1.03 (1.4) | -0.91 (1.4) | 0.019 |
Malawi | 2000 | 0–59 | 4557 | 4605 | -1.88 (1.6) | -1.75 (1.6) | < 0.001 |
Kenya | 2003 | 0–59 | 2366 | 2353 | -1.29 (1.5) | -1.08 (1.6) | < 0.001 |
Kenya | 1998 | 0–35 | 1451 | 1448 | -1.29 (1.7) | -1.15 (1.6) | 0.026 |
Ghana | 2003 | 0–59 | 1567 | 1527 | -1.42 (1.4) | -1.20 (1.5) | < 0.001 |
Ghana | 1998 | 0–59 | 1288 | 1338 | -1.26 (1.5) | -1.12 (1.5) | 0.026 |
Cameroon | 1998 | 0–59 | 905 | 879 | -1.17 (1.6) | -1.03 (1.5) | 0.056 |
All studies
|
1995 to 2003
|
0–59
|
31948
|
31963
|
-1.59 (1.6)
|
-1.46 (1.6)
|
< 0.001
|
Country (year of study) | Sex | Percentage stunted by household asset index quintile | p-value for test of trend | Percentage stunted by mothers education status | p-value for test of trend | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1st
| 2nd
| 3rd
| 4th
| 5th
| Nil | Primary | Secondary | ||||
Zimbabwe (1999) | M | 33.1 | 28.4 | 27.3 | 24.2 | 24.3 |
0.007
| 31.0 | 31.9 | 22.7 |
0.001
|
F | 30.6 | 28.9 | 23.7 | 23.8 | 14.5 |
0.001
| 36.9 | 25.9 | 21.7 |
0.001
| |
Pearson χ
2
test
|
0.49
|
0.90
|
0.46
|
0.91
|
0.01
|
0.35
|
0.02
|
0.67
| |||
Zambia (2001/02)b
| M | 57.0 | 51.5 | 47.9 | 34.1 |
< 0.001
| 53.8 | 52.4 | 36.1 |
< 0.001
| |
F | 52.0 | 46.2 | 44.5 | 36.1 |
< 0.001
| 52.2 | 47.5 | 35.9 |
< 0.001
| ||
Pearson χ
2
test
|
0.03
|
0.04
|
0.30
|
0.48
|
0.64
|
< 0.01
|
0.95
| ||||
Zambia (1996) | M | 49.0 | 51.9 | 47.0 | 43.5 | 28.3 |
< 0.001
| 50.0 | 46.5 | 33.4 |
< 0.001
|
F | 54.1 | 52.4 | 44.3 | 39.3 | 25.2 |
< 0.001
| 51.1 | 45.4 | 30.9 |
< 0.001
| |
Pearson χ
2
test
|
0.20
|
0.83
|
0.48
|
0.11
|
0.28
|
0.76
|
0.53
|
0.37
| |||
Uganda (2000/01) | M | 46.9 | 45.9 | 44.0 | 30.8 | 26.7 |
< 0.001
| 46.7 | 39.4 | 26.7 |
< 0.001
|
F | 44.2 | 41.1 | 39.5 | 33.1 | 22.5 |
< 0.001
| 46.7 | 34.9 | 25.7 |
< 0.001
| |
Pearson χ
2
test
|
0.38
|
0.13
|
0.11
|
0.45
|
0.14
|
0.99
|
< 0.01
|
0.77
| |||
Uganda (1995/6) | M | 44.7 | 44.9 | 42.2 | 35.9 | 21.6 |
< 0.001
| 44.6 | 38.9 | 23.2 |
< 0.001
|
F | 42.1 | 38.1 | 32.4 | 35.8 | 16.9 |
< 0.001
| 41.6 | 32.9 | 19.3 |
< 0.001
| |
Pearson χ
2
test
|
0.40
|
0.04
|
< 0.01
|
1.00
|
0.08
|
0.30
|
< 0.01
|
0.21
| |||
Tanzania (1999) | M | 54.7 | 47.3 | 37.8 | 36.9 | 22.6 |
< 0.001
| 44.9 | 42.4 | 19.7 |
< 0.001
|
F | 53.1 | 41.9 | 44.9 | 32.6 | 19.0 |
< 0.001
| 47.0 | 38.1 | 19.9 |
< 0.001
| |
Pearson χ
2
test
|
0.67
|
0.31
|
0.23
|
0.28
|
0.35
|
0.59
|
0.09
|
0.98
| |||
Tanzania (1996)b
| M | 56.2 | 47.2 | 45.5 | 29.6 |
< 0.001
| 52.9 | 44.3 | 31.0 |
< 0.001
| |
F | 50.5 | 44.0 | 40.7 | 30.5 |
< 0.001
| 48.1 | 41.7 | 24.2 |
< 0.001
| ||
Pearson χ
2
test
|
0.01
|
0.22
|
0.16
|
0.74
|
0.06
|
0.12
|
0.22
| ||||
Nigeria (2003) | M | 52.4 | 51.8 | 42.8 | 33.1 | 24.1 |
< 0.001
| 52.7 | 39.6 | 21.6 |
< 0.001
|
F | 44.2 | 44.0 | 36.2 | 33.7 | 19.6 |
< 0.001
| 45.9 | 32.1 | 19.6 |
< 0.001
| |
Pearson χ
2
test
|
0.01
|
0.04
|
0.03
|
0.85
|
0.11
|
< 0.01
|
0.01
|
0.38
| |||
Nigeria (1999) | M | 58.2 | 54.4 | 47.2 | 46.8 | 41.1 |
0.002
| 57.4 | 43.2 | 43.4 |
0.002
|
F | 52.4 | 53.6 | 44.4 | 34.8 | 36.2 |
0.001
| 55.2 | 36.6 | 34.6 |
0.001
| |
Pearson χ
2
test
|
0.41
|
0.88
|
0.66
|
0.03
|
0.34
|
0.68
|
0.17
|
0.04
| |||
Namibia (2000) | M | 30.7 | 23.0 | 23.8 | 20.7 | 13.9 |
< 0.001
| 29.8 | 26.7 | 17.0 |
< 0.001
|
F | 31.4 | 24.3 | 17.2 | 20.3 | 10.3 |
< 0.001
| 30.7 | 24.3 | 14.4 |
< 0.001
| |
Pearson χ
2
test
|
0.87
|
0.72
|
0.08
|
0.89
|
0.19
|
0.84
|
0.38
|
0.20
| |||
Malawi (2000) | M | 57.0 | 56.2 | 48.8 | 48.2 | 34.6 |
< 0.001
| 53.7 | 48.3 | 28.7 |
< 0.001
|
F | 53.2 | 48.9 | 47.1 | 46.4 | 34.0 |
< 0.001
| 52.2 | 45.1 | 26.7 |
< 0.001
| |
Pearson χ
2
test
|
0.07
|
0.01
|
0.48
|
0.40
|
0.78
|
0.44
|
< 0.01
|
0.57
| |||
Kenya (2003) | M | 39.6 | 35.7 | 34.4 | 25.8 | 24.0 |
< 0.001
| 36.2 | 35.7 | 20.8 |
< 0.005
|
F | 35.2 | 29.3 | 29.1 | 24.1 | 11.5 |
< 0.001
| 31.8 | 29.8 | 13.7 |
< 0.001
| |
Pearson χ
2
test
|
0.18
|
0.02
|
0.08
|
0.58
|
0.01
|
0.17
|
< 0.01
|
< 0.01
| |||
Kenya (1998) | M | 46.0 | 42.3 | 28.2 | 31.7 | 25.5 |
< 0.001
| 44.5 | 37.2 | 24.0 |
< 0.001
|
F | 37.0 | 35.9 | 25.3 | 27.9 | 15.3 |
< 0.001
| 42.9 | 30.9 | 16.0 |
< 0.001
| |
Pearson χ
2
test
|
0.03
|
0.10
|
0.41
|
0.31
|
0.01
|
0.76
|
< 0.01
|
< 0.01
| |||
Ghana (2003) | M | 39.2 | 40.6 | 29.7 | 36.0 | 20.7 |
< 0.001
| 41.0 | 29.1 | 25.1 |
< 0.001
|
F | 36.3 | 33.3 | 24.1 | 31.0 | 15.4 |
< 0.001
| 36.3 | 20.8 | 21.8 |
< 0.001
| |
Pearson χ
2
test
| 0.52 | 0.03 | 0.13 | 0.20 | 0.11 | 0.06 | 0.01 | 0.12 | |||
Ghana (1998) | M | 37.8 | 35.1 | 39.4 | 28.9 | 13.8 |
< 0.001
| 35.8 | 32.8 | 22.2 |
< 0.001
|
F | 34.4 | 27.0 | 27.5 | 25.2 | 12.2 |
< 0.001
| 31.9 | 24.5 | 18.2 |
< 0.001
| |
Pearson χ
2
test
|
0.42
|
0.01
|
0.08
|
0.31
|
0.60
|
0.15
|
0.04
|
0.12
| |||
Cameroon (1998) | M | 38.2 | 35.5 | 36.5 | 25.6 | 14.9 |
< 0.001
| 41.3 | 28.3 | 20.7 |
< 0.001
|
F | 32.0 | 32.6 | 22.5 | 18.9 | 18.2 |
< 0.001
| 35.0 | 24.4 | 17.6 |
< 0.001
| |
Pearson χ
2
test
|
0.24
|
0.56
|
0.01
|
0.14
|
0.42
| 0.13 | 0.23 | 0.37 |