Introduction
Methods
Regions
Country | Design | Cancer types | References |
---|---|---|---|
South-East Asia | |||
Bangladesh | Opportunistic | Cervical, Breast, Oral | |
Bhutan | Opportunistic | Cervical | |
South Korea | Organized | Breast, Cervical, Colorectal, Gastric, Liver, Lung | [36] |
India | Opportunistic | Breast, Cervical, Oral | |
Indonesia | Opportunistic | Breast, Cervical, Colorectal | |
Maldives | Opportunistic | Cervical | [87] |
Myanmar | Opportunistic | Cervical | [55] |
Nepal | Opportunistic | Cervical | [88] |
Sri Lanka | Opportunistic | Breast, Cervical, Oral | |
Thailand | Organized | Cervical, Colorectal Breast | |
Timor-Leste | Unknown | ||
Western Pacific | |||
Australia | Organized | Breast, Cervical, Colorectal | [34] |
Brunei Darussalam | Organized | Cervical | [91] |
Opportunistic | Breast, Colorectal, Liver, Nasopharyngeal | ||
Cambodia | Opportunistic | Cervical, Breast | |
China | Opportunistic/Organized local initiatives | Breast, Cervical, Colorectal, Gastric, Liver, Lung, Nasopharyngeal, Oesophageal | |
Japan | Organized | Breast, Cervical, Colorectal, Gastric, Lung | [17] |
Laos | Opportunistic | Cervical | [55] |
Malaysia | Opportunistic | Breast, Cervical, Colorectal | |
Mongolia | Opportunistic | Cervical | [100] |
New Zealand | Organized | Breast, Cervical, Colorectal | [30] |
Papua New Guinea | Unknown | ||
Philippines | Opportunistic | Breast, Cervical, Colorectal, Prostate | [101] |
Singapore | Organized | Breast, Cervical, Colorectal | [32] |
Taiwan | Organized | Breast, Cervical, Colorectal, Oral | |
Vietnam | Opportunistic | Breast, Cervical, Colorectal, Oral | [104] |
Step 1 - literature review
Expert inputs on organization of the cancer screening programs
Results
Organization of screening
Country | South Korea | Thailand | Australia | Japan | New Zealand | Singapore | Taiwan | Malaysia |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Representative | Choi | Siwaporn | Canfell, Simms | Hamashima | Cox | Wee | Chiu | Bhoo-Pathy |
Essential criteria by Zhang et al. (2022) | ||||||||
1. Cancer screening program has a protocol/guideline describing at least the target population, screening intervals, screening tests, referral pathway, management of positive cases | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
2. There is a system in place for identifying the target population | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No |
3. There is a system in place for inviting eligible individuals for screening | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | No |
4. Cancer screening program has a policy framework from the health authorities defining governance structure, financing, goals and objectives of the program | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
5. Performance of screening program should be evaluated with appropriate indicators | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
6. The protocol/guideline should at least describe: monitoring and evaluation | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
7. There is a system in place for notifying the results and informing about follow up | Yes | Yes | Yes | Partially | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
8. There is a system in place for sending recall notice to the non-compliant individuals | Yes | No | Yes | Partially | Yes | Partially | Sometimes | No |
9. Auditing of the program | Yes | No | Yes | No | No | Yes | Yes | Yes |
10. A specified team/organization is responsible for quality assurance/ improvement | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
11. Performance of cancer screening program is evaluated, published and widely disseminated on a regular basis | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | No | Partially | Yes | Yes |
12. All activities along the screening pathway are planned, coordinated and evaluated through a quality improvement framework (quality assurance) | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes |
13. An evidence-based protocol/guideline developed in consensus with majority of stakeholders | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes |
14. An information system exists with appropriate linkages (between population databases, screening information, cancer registry, etc.) for screening implementation and evaluation | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No | Yes | No |
15. The screening program has a provision of continued training for service providers | Yes | No | Yes | Partially | No | Yes | Yes | Yes |
16. Performance of screening program should be evaluated with reference standards for the indicators | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | No |
Cancers
Cervical cancer screening
Country | Initiation | Cancer types | Test modality | Age range | Interval | Additional information |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
South Korea | 2002 | Breast | Mammography | 40 and above | 2 years | |
2002 | Cervical | Pap Smear | 20 and above | 2 years | ||
2003 | Liver | Abdominal Ultrasonography + Serum Alpha-Fetoprotein test | 40 and above (high-risk individuals) | 6 months | High risk is considered HBsAg positive or anti-HCV positive or liver cirrhosis | |
2004 | Colorectal | FIT | 50 and above | 1 year | ||
2002 | Gastric | UGIS/GE | 40 and above | 2 years | ||
2019 | Lung | Low dose CT scan | 54–74 with 30 pack-years | 2 years | ||
Thailand# | 2005 | Cervical | HPV (since 2020) | 30–60 | 5 years | HPV-testing is not fully implemented across the country |
2018 | Colorectal | FIT (20 µg Hb/g feces) | 50–70 | 2 years | ||
Australia | 1991 | Breast | Mammography | 50–74 | 2 years | |
1991 | Cervical | HPV | 25–74 | 5 years | ||
2006 | Colorectal | FIT (20 µg Hb/g feces) | 50–74 | 2 years | ||
Japan$ | 1987 | Breast | Mammography | 40 and above | 2 years | |
1983 | Cervical | Pap Smear | 20 and above | 2 years | HPV-testing is currently debated, but not yet implemented. | |
1992 | Colorectal | FIT (cut-off not defined) | 40 and above | 1 year | ||
1983 | Gastric | UGIS/GE | UGIS: 40 and above GE: 50 and above | UGIS 1 year GE 2 year | ||
New Zealand | 1989 | Breast | Mammography | 45–69 | 2 years | |
1991 | Cervical | Pap Smear | 25–69 | 3 years | Switching to 5-yearly HPV-testing in 2023 | |
2017 | Colorectal | FIT (40 µg Hb/g feces) | 60–74 | 2 years | ||
Singapore | 2002 | Breast | Mammography | 50–69 | 2 years | |
2004 | Cervical | Pap Smear HPV | 25-29 30-69 | 3 years 5 years | ||
2011 | Colorectal | FIT (10 µg Hb/g feces) or colonoscopy | 50 and above | 1 year 10 years | ||
Taiwan | 2004 | Breast | Mammography | 45–69 (40–44 with family history) | 2 years | |
1995 | Cervical | Pap Smear | 30 and above | 3 years | ||
2004 | Colorectal | FIT (20 µg Hb/g feces) | 50–74 | 2 years | ||
2004 | Oral | Oral mucosa inspection | 30 and above with the habits of smoking and/or betel nut chewing 18 and above for aborigines with the habit of betel nut chewing | 2 years | ||
Opportunistic approach with national screening recommendation with work in progress to implement organized cancer screening | ||||||
Malaysia | 2011 | Breast | CBE/Mammography | 35 and above 50–74 | 1 year 2 years | |
1995 | Cervical | Pap Smear | 20–65 | 3 years | HPV-testing was introduced in 2020, but not available yet in the whole country | |
2014 | Colorectal | FIT | 50 and above | 1 year |