Background
The occurrence of cancer in children is a heavy blow not only for themselves, but also for their families. Although the mortality pattern of childhood cancer has changed in the majority of developed countries and survival rates have significantly improved due to advanced medical technology, it remains the second most common cause of death (following accidents) for the pediatric population [
1]. Describing the epidemiology of childhood cancer can improve our understanding on cancer etiology and promote the critical assessment of current protocols for cancer control and prevention [
2]. The Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER) program in the United States and the Automated Childhood Cancer Information System in Europe has closely monitored the epidemiology of childhood cancer and reported increasing trends in childhood cancer incidence from 1974 to 2014 and from 1978 to 1997 [
3‐
5]. However, limited data is available on the characteristics and trends of childhood cancer in China, particularly for rapidly developing areas like Pudong.
In the past forty years of reform and opening-up, China’s total economic output has increased by more than 200 times. China’s share of global economic output has risen from 2 to 15% [
6]. Pudong, an important district which is located in the southeast of Shanghai, with urban and suburban, is a symbol of China’s reform. Specifically, the gross domestic product (GDP) in Pudong has increased from 10.1 billion RMB in 1992 to 789.8 billion RMB in 2015, with an average annual growth rate of 15.6%. Since Pudong merged previous Nanhui district in 2009, so the whole metropolitan area of Pudong has risen from 517.83 km
2 in 1995 (8.12% of the land area of Shanghai) to 1373.82 km
2 in 2015 (21.67% of Shanghai). The permanent population has increased from 2.40 million in 2000 (14.92% of Shanghai) to 5.47 million in 2015 (22.7% of Shanghai) [
7]. Social and economic development is widely regarded as an essential factor for the improvement of people’s health [
8,
9]. In fact, cancer has been ranked as the second leading cause of death in Pudong since 1993 [
10]. With the development of Pudong, residents are more concerned with the risk factors of diseases such as cancer. Moreover, with the release of the government “second child” policy in 2016, parents pay more attention to prenatal and postnatal care as well as environmental quality. As the epitome of China’s development, Pudong is a unique and valuable place for analyzing characteristics and trends of childhood cancer and exploring effective strategies to control and prevent this disease.
The aims of this study are threefold: firstly, to examine the overall cancer incidence in children from 2002 to 2015 and the characteristics of childhood cancer; secondly, to study the trends of childhood cancer overtime and by different cancer type; finally, to explore any changes in survival rates for children with cancer.
Discussion
Like other diseases, the incidence of childhood cancer varies by population and geographic area. The ASR for childhood cancer in Pudong was 116.5/1,000,000 person-years from 2002 to 2015, lower than the ASR of China from 1990 to 2013 (131.9/1,000,000 person-years) and ranked in the middle compared to the six population-based cancer registries in China. Specifically, the ASR for childhood cancer in Pudong was lower than that of Beijing, Guangzhou, Dalian, and Hong Kong; but higher than that of Zhongshan and Shanghai [
18] (Table
3). The reasons for geographic variation in the incidence of childhood cancer remain largely unknown.
Table 3
Comparison of children cancer by cancer registry in China
I. LEUKAEMIA | Pudong | 37.8 | 86.8 | 0.0 |
| Beijing | 50.1 | 99.9 | 0.0 |
| Dalian | 54.1 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Guangzhou | 59.2 | 98.4 | 0.0 |
| Hongkong | 52.1 | 97.9 | 0.1 |
| Shanghai | 38.5 | 97.8 | 0.3 |
| Zhongshan | 29.4 | 99.3 | 0.0 |
| Combined 6 registries | 49.1 | 98.7 | 0.1 |
II. LYMPHOMA & RELATED | Pudong | 7.5 | 96.6 | 0.3 |
| Beijing | 6.7 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Dalian | 11.0 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Guangzhou | 10.6 | 96.9 | 0.0 |
| Hongkong | 11.3 | 90.7 | 0.0 |
| Shanghai | 10.3 | 96.1 | 0.7 |
| Zhongshan | 7.0 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Combined 6 registries | 9.5 | 94.7 | 0.1 |
III. CNS NEOPLASMS | Pudong | 22.9 | 80.2 | 0.1 |
| Beijing | 20.5 | 68.4 | 0.8 |
| Dalian | 20.1 | 60.0 | 11.4 |
| Guangzhou | 23.3 | 80.5 | 1.8 |
| Hongkong | 22.3 | 89.7 | 1.6 |
| Shanghai | 23.5 | 70.6 | 3.3 |
| Zhongshan | 19.4 | 81.9 | 0.0 |
| Combined 6 registries | 21.6 | 78.6 | 1.9 |
IV. NEUROBLASTOMA | Pudong | 7.8 | 92.3 | 0.0 |
| Beijing | 8.4 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Dalian | 3.0 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Guangzhou | 8.1 | 96.6 | 0.0 |
| Hongkong | 10.5 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Shanghai | 9.4 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Zhongshan | 2.5 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Combined 6 registries | 8.1 | 99.8 | 0.0 |
V. RETINOBLASTOMA | Pudong | 0.2 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Beijing | 6.3 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Dalian | 1.1 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Guangzhou | 5.7 | 68.8 | 0.0 |
| Hongkong | 6.7 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Shanghai | 3.7 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Zhongshan | 3.3 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Combined 6 registries | 5.7 | 98.0 | 0.0 |
VI. RENAL TUMOURS | Pudong | 5.7 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Beijing | 5.4 | 98.8 | 0.0 |
| Dalian | 6.9 | 91.7 | 0.0 |
| Guangzhou | 3.3 | 90.0 | 0.0 |
| Hongkong | 4.4 | 91.8 | 0.0 |
| Shanghai | 2.9 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Zhongshan | 6.2 | 95.0 | 0.0 |
| Combined 6 registries | 4.7 | 95.0 | 0.0 |
VII. HEPATIC TUMOURS | Pudong | 2.4 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Beijing | 3.9 | 98.6 | 0.0 |
| Dalian | 9.1 | 47.4 | 15.8 |
| Guangzhou | 6.1 | 50.0 | 0.0 |
| Hongkong | 5.5 | 86.6 | 0.6 |
| Shanghai | 3.1 | 76.9 | 7.7 |
| Zhongshan | 2.9 | 58.3 | 0.0 |
| Combined 6 registries | 4.8 | 81.6 | 1.9 |
VIII. BONE TUMOURS | Pudong | 6.8 | 93.1 | 0.0 |
| Beijing | 5.0 | 89.2 | 0.5 |
| Dalian | 3.7 | 87.5 | 8.3 |
| Guangzhou | 4.6 | 95.2 | 0.0 |
| Hongkong | 5.9 | 95.3 | 0.4 |
| Shanghai | 4.8 | 96.6 | 0.0 |
| Zhongshan | 3.2 | 96.3 | 0.0 |
| Combined 6 registries | 5.2 | 93.2 | 0.6 |
IX. SOFT TISSUE SARCOMA | Pudong | 0.3 | 83.3 | 0.0 |
| Beijing | 5.8 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Dalian | 2.9 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Guangzhou | 7.9 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Hongkong | 8.2 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Shanghai | 5.9 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Zhongshan | 2.6 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Combined 6 registries | 6.6 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
X. GERM CELL TUMOURS | Pudong | 0.4 | 86.7 | 0.0 |
| Beijing | 5.6 | 99.0 | 0.0 |
| Dalian | 3.2 | 94.4 | 0.0 |
| Guangzhou | 10.1 | 98.2 | 0.0 |
| Hongkong | 11.3 | 99.0 | 0.0 |
| Shanghai | 6.4 | 94.9 | 0.0 |
| Zhongshan | 5.1 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Combined 6 registries | 8.3 | 98.5 | 0.0 |
XI. CARCINOMA & MELANOMA | Pudong | 0.5 | 66.7 | 0.0 |
| Beijing | 3.5 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Dalian | 6.2 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Guangzhou | 8.1 | 99.0 | 0.0 |
| Hongkong | 4.4 | 99.8 | 0.0 |
| Shanghai | 4.6 | 97.2 | 0.0 |
| Zhongshan | 3.0 | 100.0 | 0.0 |
| Combined 6 registries | 4.3 | 99.4 | 0.0 |
XII. OTHER & UNSPECIFIED | Pudong | 24.2 | 89.7 | 0.0 |
| Beijing | 3.1 | 19.8 | 7.7 |
| Dalian | 21.2 | 17.0 | 35.8 |
| Guangzhou | 2.5 | 25.0 | 8.3 |
| Hongkong | 2.2 | 40.1 | 1.3 |
| Shanghai | 1.3 | 60.0 | 13.3 |
| Zhongshan | 3.6 | 65.0 | 0.0 |
| Combined 6 registries | 3.2 | 35.2 | 9.3 |
TOTAL | Pudong | 116.5 | 88.1 | 0.5 |
| Beijing | 124.3 | 92.0 | 0.4 |
| Dalian | 142.5 | 80.8 | 7.1 |
| Guangzhou | 149.4 | 91.8 | 0.4 |
| Hongkong | 144.6 | 94.1 | 0.3 |
| Shanghai | 114.4 | 90.5 | 1.4 |
| Zhongshan | 88.2 | 93.5 | 0.0 |
| Combined 6 registries | 131.9 | 92.4 | 0.7 |
The most frequent childhood cancer in Pudong was leukemia, followed by CNS tumors. The ASR of leukemia in Pudong was 37.8/1,000,000 person-years, lower than the ASR of leukemia in China and ranked as the second lowest compared to the six population-based cancer registries mentioned above. Slightly higher ASRs of leukemia were reported in Beijing, Dalian, Guangzhou, Hong Kong, and Shanghai, but Zhongshan had a slightly lower ASR. The ASR of CNS tumors in Pudong was very close to the ASR of CNS tumors in China and ranked in the middle compared to the six population-based cancer registries [
18]. The ASR of retinoblastoma, soft-tissue sarcomas, germ cell tumors in Pudong was 2.1/1,000,000, 2.8/1,000,000, and 3.5/1,000,000 person-years, respectively, which was higher than that in Dalian, and lower than that in Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Zhongshan. The DCO% was 0.5%, which was similar to that in Beijing, Guangzhou and Hong Kong, lower than that in Shanghai and Dalian, and higher than that in Zhongshan. In addition, the MV% was 88.1%, which was higher than that in Dalian and lower than that in other five registry cities. (Table
3) The incidence of neuroblastoma apparently increased with the age, the reverse of what is found in most populations.
Compared with adults, childhood cancer is relatively rare and diverse. Although many studies have been carried out to explore the etiology of childhood cancer, our understanding of its biological mechanism is still limited [
19]. SEER program has listed specific risk factors for childhood cancer, including radiation, race and genetic factors For example, a study reports that protective maternal supplementation of folic acid can reduce the risk of B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia [
20]; higher incidence of ALL is observed among children who live in newly painted houses after birth [
21]; National Cancer Institute reports that father’s smoking can significantly increase the risk of cancer in children, especially acute leukemia and lymphoma [
22]. However, whether theses suspected factors have played a role in childhood cancer still needs to be further confirmed.
Air pollution has been a big problem in China over recent years [
23], China is one of the countries with highest PM
2.5 concentration in the world, and annual average PM
2.5 concentration in Central-Eastern China has been over 100mug/m
3 in the past two decades [
24], especially eastern provinces with higher GDP and population density where the most amount of PM2.5 was emitted in China from 2005 to 2014 [
25], similar in other Asian countries such as India [
26] and Thailand [
27]. Exposure to particular matters (e.g., PM
2.5) in the smog/haze is considered to be related with the incidence of childhood cancer [
28]. However, the number of childhood cancer cases was too small to detect any meaningful trends, so the suspected link between air pollution and childhood cancer was not supported by our findings. To establish the relationship between air pollution and childhood cancer, advanced study designs (e.g., prospective cohort study and spatiotemporal modelling) are required. In consideration of age group, the diagnosis of childhood cancer under the age of 5 was mainly due to heredity whereas the diagnosis of childhood cancer at the ages of 5 or over was regarded to be associated with environmental exposure [
29].
Moreover, gender and living regions were not significantly associated with survival rate of childhood cancer. The 5-year survival rate for all childhood cancers was 66.7%, higher than 55.7% reported by Zheng et al. in Shanghai during 2002–2005 [
30,
31] and 47.2% in Thailand during 2001–2011 [
32], but lower than 71.9% from 198 registries in 53 countries [
33].
This study has a number of strengths. We focused on Pudong because it has been a rapidly developing region and socioeconomic development has been unprecedentedly fast over the past decades. In this study, we provide novel insight into childhood cancer incidence rates, patient survival rates, and overall trend of childhood cancer incidence in Pudong. Additionally, a sophisticated statistical approach (i.e., multivariate Cox regression model) was applied to analyze survival risk factors. On the other hand, this study also has several limitations. Only permanent residents in Pudong were included in the cancer registry. In fact, there is a large floating population in Pudong. Taking the population under 15 in 2015 as an example, the number of permanent residents was 157,797 whereas the number of floating population who had residence permit was 320,692. Focusing solely on permanent residents may introduce bias as some childhood cancer patients may not registered in Pudong due to frequent and unstable population exchange. Moreover, due to limited number of cases, the trend analysis was not very useful for several cancer type, and the subtypes of leukemia and CNS tumors were not analyzed.
In summary, this study described the overall cancer incidence in children and the characteristics of childhood cancer in Pudong between 2002 and 2015. We also examined the trends of childhood cancer and explored any changes in survival rates for children with cancer. We found that the most common cancers that occurred in children were leukemia and CNS tumors, the incidence and survival rate for childhood cancer patients varied by age and cancer type, and the overall trends of childhood cancer incidence remained relatively stable from 2002 to 2015. During the recent decades, many advances have been achieved in the treatment of childhood cancer whereas the research in causes and prevention of childhood cancer has lagged behind. Concerted efforts are required for establishing a more-sophisticated cancer registry and identifying causal/risk factors of childhood cancer. Appropriate collaboration is needed to develop effective childhood cancer prevention programs at regional, national and international levels.
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