Background
Aims and research questions
-
1. Which risk and protective factors were associated with co-occurring physical IPV against women and physical punishment of children in the same household?
-
2. Which correlates were ‘shared’ across three patterns of physical violence in the household (physical child punishment only, physical IPV only, and co-occurrence), each compared with no violence?
-
3. Is physical IPV against women in the household a significant risk factor for physical child punishment, after controlling for other factors?
Methods
Survey characteristics
Sample design
Colombia 2015 DHS | Mexico 2016 ENDIREH | Peru 2018 DHS | |
---|---|---|---|
Original full survey sample | 38,087 | 111,256 | 38,777 |
Original child discipline sample | 21,537 | 90,068 | 22,412 |
Original eligibility criteria for child discipline questions | Ever partnered and ever had a live birtha | Did not select response option ‘no children’ | Selected for violence module and living with 1+ daughter or son |
Reason excluded: | |||
No child discipline datab | (16,550) | (21,188) | (16,365) |
Never partneredc | 0 | (3,986) | (957) |
Not age 15–49 | (4) | (31,061) | 0 |
Not a regular household member | 0 | 0 | (184) |
Not living with a daughter or son aged 1–14 | (4,463) | (11,926) | (1,770) |
Previously but not currently partnered | (3,552) | (4,998) | (2,345) |
Study subsample, this analysis | 13,518 | 38,097 | 17,156 |
Safety and ethics
Measures of physical punishment
Survey itemsa (Translated by authors) |
---|
Colombia |
Who punishes your sons (daughters) (or your step or adopted sons (daughters)) in the household? Anyone else? |
father/stepfather; mother/respondent/ stepmother; other; no one (not punished) |
if father/stepfather: How does your partner punish your (step, adopted) sons (daughters)? |
if respondent: How do you punish your (step, adopted) sons (daughters)? |
if other: How does that person punish your (step, adopted) sons (daughters)? |
coded acts of physical punishmentb: spank/smack; push; beat with objects |
Mexico |
When your husband or partner becomes angry or desperate with his/your daughters and sons, does he hit them sometimes? frequently? does not hit them? no sons/daughters? |
When you become angry or desperate with your daughters and sons, do you hit them sometimes? frequently? do not hit them? no sons/daughters? |
coded acts of physical punishment: sometimes hits; frequently hits |
Peru |
Who reprimands or punishes your daughters or sons in the household? Anyone else? |
biological father; biological mother; other; no one (not punished) |
if father: How does your husband/partner punish your daughter(s) or son(s)? |
if mother: How do you punish your daughter(s) or son(s)? |
if other: How does that person punish your daughter(s) or son(s)? |
coded acts of physical punishmentb: spank/smack; beat or ‘physical punishment’ |
Measures of physical IPV
Survey | Acts of physical IPV included in the operational definition |
---|---|
Her current husband or partner (ever or in the past year): | |
Colombia | shoved or shook her; hit her with his hand; hit her with an object; kicked or dragged her; threatened her or attacked her with a knife, firearm, or other weapon; tried to strangle or burn her |
Mexico | shoved her or pulled her hair; slapped or smacked her; tied her up; kicked her; threw an object at her; hit her with a fist or object; tried to choke or strangle her; threatened her with a knife or firearm or with burning; attacked her with a knife or razor; or shot her with a firearm |
Peru | shoved, shook or threw something at her; slapped her or twisted her arm; hit her with his fist or something that could hurt her; kicked or dragged her; tried to strangle or burn her; attacked or threatened her with a knife, firearm, or other weapon |
Patterns of violence in the household
Potential correlates
Variable | Operational definition |
---|---|
Women’s Age | Age group (15–29 years; 30–39 years; and 40–49 years) |
Women’s education | Highest level attended (primary or none; ≤ 3 years of lower secondary; > 3 years of upper secondary; any post-secondary) |
Household wealth | Wealth terciles (poorest; middle; richest) generated by principal component analysis |
Residence | Based on National Statistics Office (NSO) definitions |
Colombia and Peru | (1 = urban; 0 = rural) |
Mexico | (1 = urban; 2 = semi-urban; 0 = rural) |
Indigenous ethnicity | (1 = indigenous; 0 = not indigenous) |
Colombia | Indigenous by culture, community or physical characteristics, per household questionnaire |
Mexico | Speaks indigenous language, per household questionnaire |
Peru | Maternal tongue was indigenous, per women’s questionnaire |
Married/mother age < 18 | (1 = married, cohabited and/or gave birth at age < 18; 0 = did not marry, cohabit or give birth at age < 18) |
Number of children | (1 = more than one daughter/son aged 1–14 living in the household; 0 = only one) |
Age of youngest child | Age of youngest age-eligible (1–14) daughter/son living in the household in years (1; 2–5; 6–9; 10–14) |
Husband/partner tries to socially isolate her (1 = yes; 0 = no) | |
Colombia | He has prevented her from meeting friends or tried to limit her contact with her family in the past year |
Mexico | He gets angry if she visits or goes out with friends or family |
Peru | He prevents her from visiting friends or tries to limit her visits or contact with her family |
Husband/partner drinks to excess (1 = yes; 0 = no) | |
Colombia | Not measured |
Mexico | She gets mad at her husband/partner because he drinks alcohol or takes drugs |
Peru | Her partner gets drunk sometimes or frequently |
Joint decisions about money (1 = yes; 0 = no) | |
Colombia, Peru | She and her husband/partner both have a say in decisions about large purchases and daily necessities |
Mexico | She and her husband/partner each have an equal say in deciding how to spend and save money |
She and her husband/partner share responsibility for household chores (1 = yes; 0 = no) | |
Colombia | They equally divide responsibility for cleaning the house, cooking or washing |
Mexico | They are both responsible for domestic chores such as cleaning, cooking, ironing and washing |
Peru | Not measured |
She agrees wife-beating is justified for 1+ reason (1 = yes; 0 = no, don’t know or unsure all reasons) | |
Colombia and Peru | Agrees with 1+ of the following reasons: 1. she leaves without telling him; 2. she neglects the children; 3. she argues with him; 4. she refuses sex; 5. she burns the food |
Mexico | Not measured |
She believes physical punishment is necessary (1 = sometimes or frequently; 0 = no or never) | |
Colombia, Mexico | Not measured |
Peru | She believes physical punishment is necessary for raising a child |
Violence in respondent’s childhood (1 = caregiver violence only; 2 = co-occurrence; 3 = IPV only; 0 = none) | |
Caregiver violence against respondent in childhood (1 = yes; 0 = no) | |
Colombia | Her parents or stepparents punished her by spanking/smacking, pushing or beating with objects |
Mexico | People she lived with before age 15 hit her sometimes or often |
Peru | Her parents punished her by spanking/smacking, beating or burning |
Respondent exposed to physical IPV in childhood (1 = yes; 0 = no or doesn’t know) | |
Colombia | Her father beat her mother |
Mexico | Adults in her childhood home hit or beat each other sometimes or frequently |
Peru | Her father ever hit her mother |
Violence in husband/partner’s childhood (1 = caregiver violence only; 2 = co-occurrence; 3 = IPV only; 0 = none) | |
Caregiver violence against husband/partner in childhood (1 = yes; 0 = no or doesn’t know) | |
Colombia | He was mistreated/abused ("maltratada") by his parents or stepparents as a child |
Mexico | He was hit or insulted in his childhood household sometimes or often before age 15 |
Peru | Not measured |
Husband/partner exposed to physical IPV in childhood (1 = yes; 0 = no or doesn’t know) | |
Colombia | His father beat his mother |
Mexico | His mother was hit/beaten by her husband before age 15 |
Peru | Not measured |
Sociodemographic variables
Reproductive histories
Partnership dynamics
Social norms
Histories of violence in childhood
Analysis
Results
Prevalence of physical violence in the household
Country | No violence | Physical child punishment (only) | Co-occurrence | Physical IPV ever (only) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
% | (95% CI) | % | (95% CI) | % | (95% CI) | % | (95% CI) | |
Colombia | 40.9 | (39.5–42.4) | 31.9 | (30.5–33.4) | 15.8 | (14.6–16.9) | 11.4 | (10.5–12.2) |
Mexico | 53.9 | (53.2–54.7) | 28.9 | (28.2–29.6) | 10.7 | (10.3–11.2) | 6.4 | (6.1–6.8) |
Peru | 46.7 | (45.2–48.2) | 26.1 | (24.8–27.3) | 14.4 | (13.3–15.4) | 12.9 | (11.9–13.9) |
Women’s characteristics and bivariate analyses
Women’s characteristics | Among women who reported: | p-value | All women in study subsample | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No violence | Physical child punishment only | Co-occurrence (both) | IPV only | |||
n = 5,535 | n = 4,316 | n = 2,130 | n = 1,537 | N = 13,518 | ||
Women’s age | % | % | % | % | % | |
15–29 years | 35.7 | 36.1 | 35.9 | 36.7 | 0.258 | 36.0 |
30–39 years | 40.9 | 43.3 | 40.4 | 43.8 | 41.9 | |
40–49 years | 23.4 | 20.6 | 23.8 | 19.5 | 22.1 | |
Women’s education | ||||||
Primary or none | 22.3 | 22.6 | 27.4 | 21.8 | < 0.001 | 23.1 |
Lower secondary | 10.3 | 10.3 | 15.1 | 15.0 | 11.6 | |
Upper secondary | 33.8 | 34.4 | 36.7 | 37.3 | 34.8 | |
Post-secondary | 33.7 | 32.7 | 20.8 | 25.9 | 30.5 | |
Household wealth | ||||||
Poorest | 35.0 | 36.4 | 41.4 | 39.3 | 0.005 | 36.9 |
Middle | 32.6 | 32.6 | 35.0 | 34.0 | 33.1 | |
Richest | 32.5 | 30.9 | 23.6 | 26.6 | 29.9 | |
Residence | ||||||
Urban | 74.1 | 72.2 | 72.7 | 73.6 | 0.522 | 73.2 |
Rural | 25.9 | 27.8 | 27.3 | 26.4 | 26.8 | |
Indigenous ethnicity | ||||||
No | 92.4 | 94.6 | 93.7 | 92.2 | 0.002 | 93.3 |
Yes | 7.6 | 5.4 | 6.3 | 7.8 | 6.7 | |
Married/mother < age 18 | ||||||
No | 65.5 | 64.7 | 54.3 | 52.4 | < 0.001 | 62.0 |
Yes | 34.5 | 35.3 | 45.7 | 47.6 | 38.0 | |
Number of children aged 1–14 | ||||||
1 | 58.3 | 50.4 | 45.7 | 58.0 | < 0.001 | 53.8 |
2+ | 41.7 | 49.6 | 54.3 | 42.0 | 46.2 | |
Age of youngest child | ||||||
1 year | 13.4 | 10.6 | 11.0 | 9.8 | < 0.001 | 11.8 |
2–5 years | 36.2 | 43.5 | 42.1 | 34.9 | 39.3 | |
6–9 years | 24.6 | 26.9 | 27.2 | 28.3 | 26.2 | |
10–14 years | 25.7 | 19.0 | 19.6 | 27.0 | 22.8 | |
Partner tries to socially isolate her | ||||||
No | 90.8 | 90.5 | 56.7 | 60.7 | < 0.001 | 81.9 |
Yes | 9.2 | 9.5 | 43.3 | 39.3 | 18.1 | |
Partner drinks to excess | Not measured | |||||
Joint money decisions | ||||||
No | 54.2 | 58.0 | 63.0 | 68.2 | < 0.001 | 58.4 |
Yes | 45.8 | 42.0 | 37.0 | 31.8 | 41.6 | |
Shared household chores | ||||||
No | 61.5 | 67.2 | 74.5 | 74.3 | < 0.001 | 66.8 |
Yes | 38.5 | 32.8 | 25.5 | 25.7 | 33.2 | |
Wife beating justified | ||||||
No/DK 5 reasons | 96.8 | 96.9 | 95.3 | 96.2 | 0.031 | 96.6 |
Yes (1+ of 5 reason) | 3.2 | 3.1 | 4.7 | 3.8 | 3.4 | |
Physical punishment necessary | Not measured | |||||
Violence in her childhood | ||||||
None | 37.2 | 18.1 | 13.7 | 28.8 | < 0.001 | 26.4 |
By caregiver only | 34.6 | 47.9 | 35.2 | 32.5 | 38.7 | |
Co-occurrence | 19.5 | 28.8 | 44.0 | 26.9 | 27.2 | |
Exposure to IPV | 8.7 | 5.1 | 7.2 | 11.9 | 7.7 | |
Violence in partner’s childhood | ||||||
None/DK | 69.9 | 60.0 | 39.9 | 48.5 | < 0.001 | 59.6 |
By caregiver only | 13.7 | 17.5 | 20.1 | 15.8 | 16.1 | |
Co-occurrence | 8.8 | 13.7 | 26.9 | 21.5 | 14.7 | |
Exposure to IPV | 7.7 | 8.7 | 13.1 | 14.2 | 9.6 |
Women’s characteristics | Among women who reported: | p-value | All women in study subsample | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No violence | Physical child punishment only | Co-occurrence (both) | IPV only | |||
n = 20,551 | n = 11,013 | n = 4,085 | n = 2,448 | N = 38,097 | ||
Women’s age | % | % | % | % | % | |
15–29 years | 34.4 | 29.1 | 30.1 | 32.3 | < 0.001 | 32.3 |
30–39 years | 41.5 | 45.7 | 46.3 | 42.6 | 43.3 | |
40–49 years | 24.1 | 25.2 | 23.6 | 25.1 | 24.4 | |
Women’s education | ||||||
Primary or none | 22.2 | 22.3 | 28.2 | 26.7 | < 0.001 | 23.2 |
Lower secondary | 36.7 | 39.7 | 42.3 | 44.3 | 38.7 | |
Upper secondary | 22.9 | 22.4 | 20.4 | 18.6 | 22.2 | |
Post-secondary | 18.2 | 15.5 | 9.1 | 10.4 | 16.0 | |
Household wealth | ||||||
Poorest | 36.8 | 38.9 | 45.6 | 44.1 | < 0.001 | 38.8 |
Middle | 32.2 | 33.4 | 33.6 | 33.0 | 32.8 | |
Richest | 31.0 | 27.6 | 20.8 | 23.0 | 28.4 | |
Residence | ||||||
Urban | 50.0 | 46.2 | 48.3 | 51.3 | < 0.001 | 48.8 |
Semi-urban | 23.7 | 26.7 | 25.3 | 22.3 | 24.6 | |
Rural | 26.3 | 27.1 | 26.4 | 26.5 | 26.6 | |
Indigenous ethnicity | ||||||
No | 92.1 | 93.9 | 91.0 | 90.5 | < 0.001 | 92.4 |
Yes | 7.9 | 6.1 | 9.0 | 9.5 | 7.6 | |
Married/mother < age 18 | ||||||
No | 71.5 | 71.3 | 58.5 | 61.1 | < 0.001 | 69.4 |
Yes | 28.5 | 28.7 | 41.5 | 38.9 | 30.6 | |
Number of children aged 1–14 | ||||||
1 | 44.9 | 32.5 | 31.9 | 40.5 | < 0.001 | 39.6 |
2+ | 55.1 | 67.5 | 68.1 | 59.5 | 60.4 | |
Age of youngest child | ||||||
1 year | 13.6 | 9.7 | 8.7 | 11.5 | < 0.001 | 11.8 |
2–5 years | 38.2 | 41.8 | 39.2 | 36.5 | 39.3 | |
6–9 years | 24.7 | 28.1 | 28.5 | 24.9 | 26.1 | |
10–14 years | 23.5 | 20.4 | 23.7 | 27.0 | 22.9 | |
Partner tries to socially isolate her | ||||||
No | 95.9 | 91.3 | 66.0 | 72.9 | < 0.001 | 89.9 |
Yes | 4.1 | 8.7 | 34.0 | 27.1 | 10.1 | |
Partner drinks to excess | ||||||
No | 83.3 | 74.3 | 47.4 | 53.8 | < 0.001 | 74.9 |
Yes | 16.7 | 25.7 | 52.6 | 46.2 | 25.1 | |
Joint money decisions | ||||||
No | 44.2 | 47.6 | 60.7 | 57.4 | < 0.001 | 47.8 |
Yes | 55.8 | 52.4 | 39.3 | 42.6 | 52.2 | |
Shared household chores | ||||||
No | 80.1 | 80.8 | 87.3 | 86.4 | < 0.001 | 81.5 |
Yes | 19.9 | 19.2 | 12.7 | 13.6 | 18.5 | |
Wife beating justified | Not measured | |||||
Physical punishment necessary | Not measured | |||||
Violence in her childhood | ||||||
None | 69.5 | 41.0 | 24.6 | 41.1 | < 0.001 | 54.6 |
By caregiver only | 11.1 | 27.5 | 22.7 | 16.0 | 17.4 | |
Co-occurrence | 9.9 | 20.3 | 39.6 | 26.1 | 17.2 | |
Exposure to IPV | 9.5 | 11.2 | 13.1 | 16.9 | 10.8 | |
Violence in partner’s childhood | ||||||
None/DK | 73.4 | 53.4 | 33.1 | 45.4 | < 0.001 | 61.5 |
By caregiver only | 11.5 | 22.4 | 22.2 | 17.5 | 16.2 | |
Co-occurrence | 8.9 | 14.8 | 31.6 | 25.5 | 14.1 | |
Exposure to IPV | 6.2 | 9.4 | 13.1 | 11.6 | 8.2 |
Women’s characteristics | Among women who reported: | p-value | All women in study subsample | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
No violence | Physical child punishment only | Co-occurrence (both) | IPV only | |||
n = 8,009 | n = 4,472 | n = 2,462 | n = 2,213 | N = 17,156 | ||
Women’s age | % | % | % | % | % | |
15–29 years | 28.6 | 33.6 | 29.1 | 22.7 | < 0.001 | 29.2 |
30–39 years | 42.9 | 43.2 | 45.3 | 44.4 | 43.5 | |
40–49 years | 28.6 | 23.2 | 25.6 | 32.8 | 27.3 | |
Women's education | ||||||
Primary or none | 21.6 | 28.5 | 28.3 | 25.7 | 0.001 | 24.9 |
Lower secondary | 10.7 | 12.3 | 14.2 | 14.9 | 12.2 | |
Upper secondary | 29.6 | 29.3 | 30.6 | 31.8 | 30.0 | |
Post-secondary | 38.1 | 30.0 | 26.9 | 27.6 | 33.0 | |
Household wealth | ||||||
Poorest | 35.9 | 42.1 | 44.6 | 40.8 | < 0.001 | 39.4 |
Middle | 32.7 | 32.0 | 32.8 | 37.3 | 33.2 | |
Richest | 31.4 | 25.8 | 22.6 | 21.9 | 27.5 | |
Residence | ||||||
Urban | 76.8 | 72.8 | 74.0 | 78.8 | < 0.001 | 75.6 |
Rural | 23.2 | 27.2 | 26.0 | 21.2 | 24.4 | |
Indigenous ethnicity | ||||||
No | 82.0 | 85.2 | 77.7 | 73.8 | < 0.001 | 81.2 |
Yes | 18.0 | 14.8 | 22.3 | 26.2 | 18.9 | |
Married/mother < age 18 | ||||||
No | 73.5 | 68.4 | 64.4 | 64.8 | < 0.001 | 69.8 |
Yes | 26.5 | 31.6 | 35.6 | 35.2 | 30.2 | |
Number of children aged 1–14 | ||||||
1 | 52.5 | 37.3 | 35.0 | 46.3 | < 0.001 | 45.2 |
2+ | 47.5 | 62.7 | 65.0 | 53.7 | 54.8 | |
Age of youngest child | ||||||
1 year | 13.6 | 10.7 | 9.7 | 9.3 | < 0.001 | 11.8 |
2–5 years | 42.4 | 56.4 | 51.6 | 41.5 | 47.3 | |
6–9 years | 26.5 | 24.4 | 26.3 | 29.5 | 26.3 | |
10–14 years | 17.5 | 8.4 | 12.5 | 19.6 | 14.7 | |
Partner tries to socially isolate her | ||||||
No | 95.4 | 92.9 | 74.2 | 74.5 | < 0.001 | 89.0 |
Yes | 4.6 | 7.1 | 25.8 | 25.5 | 11.0 | |
Partner drinks to excess | ||||||
No | 47.5 | 42.3 | 23.2 | 30.1 | < 0.001 | 40.4 |
Yes | 52.5 | 57.7 | 76.8 | 69.9 | 59.6 | |
Joint money decisions | ||||||
No | 69.5 | 72.5 | 78.1 | 77.0 | < 0.001 | 72.5 |
Yes | 30.5 | 27.5 | 21.9 | 23.0 | 27.5 | |
Shared household chores | Not measured | |||||
Wife beating justified | ||||||
No/DK all reasons | 99.0 | 98.0 | 98.0 | 98.7 | 0.003 | 98.6 |
Yes (1+ of 5 reasons) | 1.0 | 2.0 | 2.0 | 1.3 | 1.4 | |
Physical punishment necessary | ||||||
No/DK | 88.3 | 61.1 | 59.6 | 85.0 | < 0.001 | 76.6 |
Yes | 11.7 | 38.9 | 40.4 | 15.0 | 23.4 | |
Violence in her childhood | ||||||
None | 33.6 | 15.5 | 11.1 | 18.5 | < 0.001 | 23.7 |
By caregiver only | 32.2 | 43.6 | 33.7 | 27.0 | 34.7 | |
Co-occurrence | 24.1 | 34.0 | 46.7 | 44.6 | 32.6 | |
Exposure to IPV | 10.1 | 6.9 | 8.4 | 9.9 | 9.0 | |
Violence in partner's childhood | Not measured |
Correlates of physical violence in the household
Women’s characteristics | Physical punishment (only) | Co-occurrence (both) | Physical IPV ever (only) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
aOR | CI (95%) | p-value | aOR | CI (95%) | p-value | aOR | CI (95%) | p-value | |
Age (Ref: 40–49 years) | |||||||||
15–29 years | 1.06 | (0.87–1.31) | 0.555 | 0.69 | (0.51–0.94) | 0.018 | 1.05 | (0.76–1.44) | 0.781 |
30–39 years | 1.07 | (0.87–1.31) | 0.536 | 0.79 | (0.61–1.02) | 0.065 | 1.18 | (0.90–1.56) | 0.236 |
Education (Ref: Post-secondary) | |||||||||
Primary or none | 0.92 | (0.73–1.16) | 0.480 | 1.35 | (0.98–1.85) | 0.063 | 0.89 | (0.64–1.23) | 0.482 |
Lower secondary | 0.94 | (0.73–1.20) | 0.598 | 1.52 | (1.11–2.10) | 0.010 | 1.26 | (0.87–1.83) | 0.219 |
Upper secondary | 0.96 | (0.76–1.20) | 0.693 | 1.29 | (0.98–1.69) | 0.071 | 1.13 | (0.82–1.56) | 0.446 |
Household wealth (Ref: Richest) | |||||||||
Poorest | 1.00 | (0.79–1.26) | 0.999 | 1.54 | (1.09–2.18) | 0.013 | 1.40 | (1.00–1.95) | 0.048 |
Middle | 1.03 | (0.84–1.27) | 0.750 | 1.20 | (0.86–1.67) | 0.280 | 1.13 | (0.84–1.53) | 0.426 |
Urban residence (Ref: Rural) | 0.89 | (0.74–1.06) | 0.186 | 1.31 | (1.04–1.66) | 0.021 | 1.16 | (0.90–1.49) | 0.261 |
Indigenous ethnicity (Ref: No) | 0.68 | (0.55–0.83) | < 0.001 | 0.74 | (0.56–0.99) | 0.044 | 1.08 | (0.82–1.42) | 0.570 |
Married/mother < 18 (Ref:18+) | 1.02 | (0.86–1.21) | 0.800 | 1.28 | (1.04–1.58) | 0.022 | 1.49 | (1.18–1.88) | 0.001 |
2+ children aged 1–14 (Ref: 1) | 1.39 | (1.15–1.67) | 0.001 | 1.51 | (1.23–1.86) | < 0.001 | 0.96 | (0.78–1.20) | 0.744 |
Age youngest eligible child (Ref: 1) | |||||||||
2–5 years | 1.51 | (1.16–1.96) | 0.002 | 1.39 | (1.04–1.87) | 0.027 | 1.29 | (0.95–1.77) | 0.107 |
6–9 years | 1.35 | (1.04–1.74) | 0.023 | 1.14 | (0.82–1.60) | 0.429 | 1.49 | (1.07–2.09) | 0.019 |
10–14 years | 0.98 | (0.71–1.34) | 0.885 | 0.92 | (0.63–1.34) | 0.656 | 1.58 | (1.06–2.36) | 0.024 |
Partner isolates her (Ref: No) | 0.92 | (0.72–1.16) | 0.462 | 5.72 | (4.48–7.31) | < 0.001 | 5.03 | (4.09–6.20) | < 0.001 |
Partner drinks to excess | Not measured | ||||||||
Joint money decisions (Ref: No) | 0.83 | (0.71–0.97) | 0.021 | 0.77 | (0.64–0.93) | 0.006 | 0.65 | (0.54–0.78) | < 0.001 |
Shared chores (Ref: No) | 0.81 | (0.67–0.97) | 0.022 | 0.70 | (0.56–0.88) | 0.002 | 0.68 | (0.55–0.85) | 0.001 |
Wife beating justified (Ref: No/DK) | 1.01 | (0.75–1.35) | 0.953 | 1.40 | (0.97–2.02) | 0.072 | 1.04 | (0.68–1.59) | 0.845 |
Physical punishment needed | Not measured | ||||||||
Violence in her childhood (Ref: No) | |||||||||
Caregiver violence only | 2.86 | (2.37–3.46) | < 0.001 | 2.91 | (2.24–3.78) | < 0.001 | 1.26 | (1.00–1.59) | 0.048 |
Co-occurrence | 2.99 | (2.42–3.70) | < 0.001 | 5.20 | (3.93–6.88) | < 0.001 | 1.55 | (1.21–1.99) | 0.001 |
Exposure to IPV only | 1.12 | (0.82–1.53) | 0.474 | 1.83 | (1.22–2.74) | 0.003 | 1.44 | (1.04–1.99) | 0.030 |
Violence in partner's childhood (Ref: No/DK) | |||||||||
Caregiver violence only | 1.41 | (1.08–1.84) | 0.012 | 2.14 | (1.63–2.81) | < 0.001 | 1.41 | (1.01–1.96) | 0.045 |
Co-occurrence | 1.71 | (1.33–2.21) | < 0.001 | 3.98 | (3.14–5.04) | < 0.001 | 2.78 | (2.11–3.66) | < 0.001 |
Exposure to IPV only | 1.23 | (0.90–1.69) | 0.195 | 2.49 | (1.82–3.39) | < 0.001 | 2.24 | (1.55–3.25) | < 0.001 |
Women’s characteristics | Physical punishment (only) | Co-occurrence (both) | Physical IPV ever (only) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
aOR | CI (95%) | p-value | aOR | CI (95%) | p-value | aOR | CI (95%) | p-value | |
Age (Ref: 40–49 years) | |||||||||
15–29 years | 0.73 | (0.65–0.82) | < 0.001 | 0.84 | (0.69–1.02) | 0.078 | 0.92 | (0.73–1.16) | 0.488 |
30–39 years | 0.91 | (0.82–1.00) | 0.051 | 1.08 | (0.93–1.26) | 0.309 | 1.05 | (0.88–1.25) | 0.591 |
Education (Ref: Post-secondary) | |||||||||
Primary or none | 1.01 | (0.89–1.15) | 0.879 | 1.35 | (1.07–1.72) | 0.012 | 1.36 | (1.04–1.76) | 0.022 |
Lower secondary | 1.15 | (1.03–1.29) | 0.017 | 1.39 | (1.13–1.71) | 0.002 | 1.47 | (1.15–1.87) | 0.002 |
Upper secondary | 1.12 | (0.99–1.26) | 0.065 | 1.38 | (1.12–1.70) | 0.002 | 1.18 | (0.91–1.52) | 0.218 |
Household wealth (Ref: Richest) | |||||||||
Poorest | 1.03 | (0.92–1.16) | 0.610 | 1.14 | (0.95–1.38) | 0.162 | 1.15 | (0.93–1.42) | 0.209 |
Middle | 1.05 | (0.95–1.16) | 0.335 | 1.12 | (0.94–1.33) | 0.201 | 1.07 | (0.89–1.30) | 0.465 |
Residence (Ref: Rural) | |||||||||
Urban | 0.87 | (0.79–0.97) | 0.011 | 1.22 | (1.04–1.43) | 0.015 | 1.33 | (1.11–1.60) | 0.002 |
Semi-urban | 1.05 | (0.94–1.17) | 0.377 | 1.15 | (0.98–1.34) | 0.089 | 1.04 | (0.87–1.24) | 0.647 |
Indigenous ethnicity (Ref: No) | 0.73 | (0.63–0.84) | < 0.001 | 1.03 | (0.83–1.27) | 0.803 | 1.12 | (0.91–1.38) | 0.285 |
Married/mother < 18 (Ref:18+) | 0.93 | (0.85–1.01) | 0.089 | 1.34 | (1.17–1.53) | < 0.001 | 1.26 | (1.08–1.48) | 0.004 |
2+ children aged 1–14 (Ref: 1) | 1.68 | (1.55–1.81) | < 0.001 | 1.70 | (1.50–1.92) | < 0.001 | 1.18 | (1.02–1.36) | 0.029 |
Age of youngest eligible child (Ref: 1) | |||||||||
2–5 years | 1.52 | (1.34–1.72) | < 0.001 | 1.62 | (1.33–1.98) | < 0.001 | 1.16 | (0.94–1.44) | 0.172 |
6–9 years | 1.48 | (1.29–1.70) | < 0.001 | 1.68 | (1.35–2.10) | < 0.001 | 1.15 | (0.91–1.45) | 0.236 |
10–14 years | 1.19 | (1.02–1.38) | 0.026 | 1.56 | (1.22–2.01) | < 0.001 | 1.30 | (1.00–1.70) | 0.052 |
Partner isolates her (Ref: No) | 1.74 | (1.51–2.00) | < 0.001 | 6.76 | (5.74–7.94) | < 0.001 | 5.44 | (4.55–6.51) | < 0.001 |
Partner drinks to excess (Ref: No) | 1.45 | (1.33–1.59) | < 0.001 | 3.35 | (2.97–3.78) | < 0.001 | 2.84 | (2.47–3.26) | < 0.001 |
Joint money decisions (Ref: No) | 0.93 | (0.86–1.00) | 0.049 | 0.67 | (0.60–0.76) | < 0.001 | 0.73 | (0.64–0.84) | < 0.001 |
Shared chores (Ref: No) | 0.98 | (0.89–1.07) | 0.662 | 0.74 | (0.64–0.87) | < 0.001 | 0.77 | (0.63–0.94) | 0.010 |
Wife beating justified | Not measured | ||||||||
Physical punishment needed | Not measured | ||||||||
Violence in her childhood (Ref: No) | |||||||||
Caregiver violence only | 3.63 | (3.30–3.99) | < 0.001 | 4.33 | (3.70–5.06) | < 0.001 | 1.95 | (1.61–2.36) | < 0.001 |
Co-occurrence | 2.85 | (2.55–3.18) | < 0.001 | 6.28 | (5.37–7.35) | < 0.001 | 2.74 | (2.29–3.28) | < 0.001 |
Exposure to IPV only | 1.72 | (1.53–1.94) | < 0.001 | 2.46 | (2.04–2.97) | < 0.001 | 2.03 | (1.68–2.47) | < 0.001 |
Violence in partner’s childhood (Ref: No/DK) | |||||||||
Caregiver violence only | 1.88 | (1.70–2.07) | < 0.001 | 2.45 | (2.09–2.86) | < 0.001 | 1.70 | (1.40–2.07) | < 0.001 |
Co-occurrence | 1.58 | (1.40–1.79) | < 0.001 | 3.62 | (3.09–4.24) | < 0.001 | 2.65 | (2.21–3.18) | < 0.001 |
Exposure to IPV only | 1.64 | (1.42–1.89) | < 0.001 | 2.67 | (2.22–3.21) | < 0.001 | 1.95 | (1.57–2.42) | < 0.001 |
Women’s characteristics | Physical punishment (only) | Co-occurrence (both) | Physical IPV ever (only) | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
aOR | CI (95%) | p-value | aOR | CI (95%) | p-value | aOR | CI (95%) | p-value | |
Age (Ref: 40–49 years) | |||||||||
15–29 years | 1.37 | (1.09–1.74) | 0.008 | 1.11 | (0.81–1.51) | 0.527 | 0.67 | (0.49–0.91) | 0.011 |
30–39 years | 1.08 | (0.87–1.34) | 0.472 | 1.06 | (0.80–1.40) | 0.693 | 0.88 | (0.68–1.14) | 0.332 |
Education (Ref: Post-secondary) | |||||||||
Primary or none | 1.87 | (1.44–2.42) | < 0.001 | 1.44 | (1.03–2.01) | 0.034 | 1.06 | (0.73–1.53) | 0.774 |
Lower secondary | 1.43 | (1.07–1.92) | 0.016 | 1.27 | (0.90–1.81) | 0.179 | 1.12 | (0.77–1.64) | 0.553 |
Upper secondary | 1.28 | (1.04–1.58) | 0.018 | 1.14 | (0.87–1.50) | 0.339 | 1.03 | (0.78–1.37) | 0.818 |
Household wealth (Ref: Richest) | |||||||||
Poorest | 0.99 | (0.76–1.29) | 0.944 | 1.30 | (0.94–1.81) | 0.111 | 1.57 | (1.11–2.22) | 0.011 |
Middle | 0.94 | (0.75–1.17) | 0.566 | 1.01 | (0.74–1.37) | 0.950 | 1.30 | (0.96–1.77) | 0.092 |
Urban residence (Ref: Rural) | 1.08 | (0.90–1.30) | 0.389 | 1.41 | (1.11–1.79) | 0.005 | 1.70 | (1.33–2.18) | < 0.001 |
Indigenous ethnicity (Ref: No) | 0.63 | (0.52–0.75) | < 0.001 | 0.96 | (0.77–1.21) | 0.753 | 1.36 | (1.09–1.70) | 0.007 |
Married/mother < 18 (Ref:18+) | 1.00 | (0.85–1.18) | 0.974 | 1.18 | (0.95–1.46) | 0.133 | 1.38 | (1.07–1.77) | 0.013 |
2+ children aged 1–14 (Ref: 1) | 1.54 | (1.31–1.81) | < 0.001 | 1.73 | (1.36–2.21) | < 0.001 | 1.22 | (0.98–1.51) | 0.072 |
Age of youngest eligible child (Ref: 1) | |||||||||
2–5 years | 1.76 | (1.53–2.02) | < 0.001 | 1.74 | (1.43–2.10) | < 0.001 | 1.33 | (1.08–1.63) | 0.006 |
6–9 years | 1.27 | (1.03–1.57) | 0.027 | 1.42 | (1.07–1.88) | 0.014 | 1.45 | (1.09–1.92) | 0.011 |
10–14 years | 0.75 | (0.53–1.05) | 0.093 | 1.20 | (0.75–1.93) | 0.438 | 1.45 | (1.01–2.08) | 0.045 |
Partner isolates her (Ref: No) | 1.46 | (1.04–2.04) | 0.028 | 6.00 | (4.45–8.08) | < 0.001 | 6.09 | (4.53–8.18) | < 0.001 |
Partner drinks to excess (Ref: No) | 1.10 | (0.95–1.28) | 0.201 | 2.47 | (1.96–3.12) | < 0.001 | 1.88 | (1.50–2.36) | < 0.001 |
Joint money decisions (Ref: No) | 0.92 | (0.78–1.08) | 0.303 | 0.74 | (0.59–0.95) | 0.016 | 0.77 | (0.62-0.96) | 0.019 |
Shared chores | Not measured | ||||||||
Wife beating justified (Ref: No/DK) | 1.49 | (0.88–2.52) | 0.138 | 1.75 | (1.04–2.94) | 0.034 | 1.46 | (0.80–2.65) | 0.219 |
Phys. punish. needed (Ref: No/DK) | 4.53 | (3.77–5.45) | < 0.001 | 4.50 | (3.55–5.70) | < 0.001 | 1.21 | (0.92–1.59) | 0.176 |
Violence in her childhood (Ref: No) | |||||||||
Caregiver violence only | 2.57 | (2.11–3.12) | < 0.001 | 2.67 | (1.87–3.83) | < 0.001 | 1.46 | (1.13–1.87) | 0.003 |
Co-occurrence | 2.93 | (2.39–3.60) | < 0.001 | 5.12 | (3.64–7.20) | < 0.001 | 3.02 | (2.31–3.96) | < 0.001 |
Exposure to IPV only | 1.68 | (1.26–2.24) | < 0.001 | 2.62 | (1.67–4.09) | < 0.001 | 1.69 | (1.15–2.50) | 0.008 |
Violence in partner’s childhood (Ref: No/DK) | |||||||||
Caregiver violence only | Not measured | ||||||||
Co-occurrence | Not measured | ||||||||
Exposure to IPV only | Not measured |
Sociodemographic factors
Indigenous ethnicity
Reproductive history
Partnership dynamics
Social norms
Histories of childhood violence
Correlations between physical child punishment and IPV
IPV Timeframe | Colombia | Mexico | Peru | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR | (95% CI) | p-value | OR | (95% CI) | p-value | OR | (95% CI) | p-value | |
Unadjusted odds ratios | |||||||||
Never | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||
Past year | 1.83 | (1.58–2.12) | < 0.001 | 3.67 | (3.26–4.12) | < 0.001 | 2.35 | (1.95–2.84) | < 0.001 |
Before past year | 1.72 | (1.41–2.11) | < 0.001 | 2.62 | (2.35–2.93) | < 0.001 | 1.79 | (1.53–2.10) | < 0.001 |
Adjusted for age, education, wealth and residence only | |||||||||
Never | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||
Past year | 1.81 | (1.56–2.09) | < 0.001 | 3.68 | (3.27–4.14) | < 0.001 | 2.31 | (1.90–2.80) | < 0.001 |
Before past year | 1.71 | (1.40–2.09) | < 0.001 | 2.54 | (2.27–2.83) | < 0.001 | 1.82 | (1.55–2.14) | < 0.001 |
Reduced model adjusted for factors available from all three countries | |||||||||
Never | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||
Past year | 1.66 | (1.40–1.97) | < 0.001 | 2.38 | (2.08–2.72) | < 0.001 | 2.08 | (1.63–2.65) | < 0.001 |
Before past year | 1.56 | (1.30–1.86) | < 0.001 | 1.94 | (1.72–2.19) | < 0.001 | 1.65 | (1.39–1.96) | < 0.001 |
Full model adjusted for all factors | |||||||||
Never | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||||||
Past year | 1.56 | (1.31–1.85) | < 0.001 | 2.03 | (1.77–2.32) | < 0.001 | 1.94 | (1.50–2.52) | < 0.001 |
Before past year | 1.46 | (1.22–1.74) | < 0.001 | 1.72 | (1.52–1.94) | < 0.001 | 1.58 | (1.32–1.90) | < 0.001 |