Background
Data and methods
Measures
Analysis
Results
Descriptive characteristics
Frequency | Percentage | |
---|---|---|
Treatment for ARI symptoms
| ||
No treatment sought | 885 | 57.32 |
Medical treatment | 593 | 38.41 |
Self-care or traditional healer | 66 | 4.27 |
Child Age
| ||
4 years
| 193 | 12.50 |
3 years
| 235 | 15.22 |
2 years
| 314 | 20.34 |
1 year
| 429 | 27.78 |
less than 1 year
| 373 | 24.16 |
Child Sex
| ||
Male
| 788 | 51.04 |
Female
| 756 | 48.96 |
Maternal Age
| ||
15-19 years
| 67 | 4.34 |
20-24 years
| 328 | 21.24 |
25-29 years
| 430 | 27.85 |
30-34 years
| 321 | 20.79 |
35-39 years
| 231 | 14.96 |
40-44 years
| 123 | 7.97 |
45-49 years
| 44 | 2.85 |
Marital Status - Mother
| ||
Married
| 1152 | 74.61 |
Common-law
| 224 | 14.51 |
Widowed/divorced/separated
| 106 | 6.87 |
Never-in-union
| 62 | 4.02 |
Religion - Mother
| ||
Christian
| 1108 | 71.76 |
Islam
| 234 | 15.16 |
Traditional
| 86 | 5.57 |
Other
| 92 | 5.96 |
No religion
| 24 | 1.55 |
Highest level of Education - Mother
| ||
No formal education
| 643 | 41.65 |
Primary
| 370 | 23.96 |
Secondary or High School
| 497 | 32.19 |
Post-secondary
| 34 | 2.20 |
Employment status - Mother
| ||
Unemployed
| 290 | 13.54 |
Employed
| 1335 | 86.46 |
Health Insurance status
| ||
Uninsured
| 1170 | 75.78 |
Insured
| 374 | 24.22 |
Sex of Household head
| ||
Male
| 1155 | 74.81 |
Female
| 389 | 24.19 |
Household wealth
| ||
Poorest
| 519 | 33.61 |
Poorer
| 342 | 22.15 |
Middle
| 297 | 19.24 |
Rich
| 224 | 14.51 |
Richest
| 162 | 10.49 |
Region of Residence
| ||
Western | 143 | 9.26 |
Central | 118 | 7.64 |
Greater Accra | 115 | 7.54 |
Volta | 170 | 11.01 |
Eastern | 160 | 10.36 |
Ashanti | 187 | 12.11 |
Brong-Ahafo | 132 | 8.55 |
Northern | 240 | 15.54 |
Upper East | 119 | 7.71 |
Upper West | 160 | 10.36 |
Place of residence
| ||
Urban
| 418 | 27.07 |
Rural
| 1126 | 72.93 |
DHS Period
| ||
1993 GDHS
| 98 | 6.35 |
1998 GDHS
| 429 | 27.78 |
2003 GDHS
| 350 | 22.67 |
2008 GHDS
| 303 | 19.62 |
2014 GDHS
| 364 | 23.58 |
No Treatment | Medical care | Self-care or Traditional healer | Chi-Square Test (Cramer’s V Test) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Frequency | Percentage | Frequency | Percentage | Frequency | Percentage | ||
Region of Residence
| |||||||
Western | 76 | 53.15 | 62 | 43.36 | 5 | 3.50 | 40.507 (0.115)** |
Central | 79 | 66.95 | 32 | 27.12 | 7 | 5.93 | |
Greater Accra | 57 | 49.57 | 51 | 44.35 | 7 | 6.09 | |
Volta | 121 | 71.18 | 45 | 26.47 | 4 | 2.35 | |
Eastern | 93 | 58.13 | 59 | 36.88 | 8 | 5.00 | |
Ashanti | 102 | 54.55 | 76 | 40.64 | 9 | 4.81 | |
Brong-Ahafo | 72 | 54.55 | 55 | 41.67 | 5 | 3.79 | |
Northern | 145 | 60.42 | 81 | 33.75 | 14 | 5.83 | |
Upper East | 63 | 52.94 | 54 | 45.38 | 2 | 1.68 | |
Upper West | 77 | 48.13 | 78 | 48.75 | 5 | 3.13 | |
Child Age
| |||||||
4 years
| 118 | 61.14 | 64 | 33.16 | 11 | 5.70 | 14.533 (0.068) |
3 years
| 146 | 62.13 | 78 | 33.19 | 11 | 4.68 | |
2 years
| 183 | 58.28 | 117 | 37.26 | 14 | 4.46 | |
1 year
| 221 | 51.52 | 194 | 45.22 | 14 | 3.26 | |
less than 1 year
| 217 | 58.18 | 140 | 37.53 | 16 | 4.29 | |
Child Sex
| |||||||
Male
| 437 | 55.46 | 313 | 39.72 | 38 | 4.82 | 2.826 (0.043) |
Female
| 448 | 59.26 | 280 | 37.04 | 28 | 3.70 | |
Place of residence
| |||||||
Urban
| 189 | 45.22 | 218 | 52.15 | 11 | 2.63 | 46.469 (0.174)*** |
Rural
| 696 | 61.81 | 375 | 33.30 | 55 | 4.88 | |
Maternal Age
| |||||||
15-19 years
| 41 | 61.19 | 21 | 31.34 | 5 | 7.46 | 22.715 (0.086)* |
20-24 years
| 203 | 61.89 | 116 | 35.37 | 9 | 2.74 | |
25-29 years
| 234 | 54.42 | 178 | 41.40 | 18 | 4.19 | |
30-34 years
| 182 | 56.70 | 120 | 37.38 | 19 | 5.92 | |
35-39 years
| 119 | 51.52 | 102 | 44.16 | 10 | 4.33 | |
40-44 years
| 77 | 62.60 | 45 | 36.59 | 1 | 0.81 | |
45-49 years
| 29 | 65.91 | 11 | 25.0 | 4 | 9.09 | |
Marital Status - Mother
| |||||||
Married
| 651 | 56.51 | 456 | 39.58 | 45 | 3.91 | 9.545 (0.056) |
Common-law
| 135 | 60.27 | 79 | 35.27 | 10 | 4.46 | |
Widowed/divorced/separated
| 68 | 64.15 | 30 | 28.30 | 8 | 7.55 | |
Never-in-union
| 31 | 50.00 | 28 | 45.16 | 3 | 4.84 | |
Religion - Mother
| |||||||
Christian
| 610 | 55.05 | 453 | 40.88 | 45 | 4.06 | 25.012 (0.090)** |
Islam
| 138 | 58.97 | 89 | 38.03 | 7 | 2.99 | |
Traditional
| 63 | 73.26 | 16 | 18.60 | 7 | 8.14 | |
Other
| 61 | 66.30 | 25 | 27.17 | 6 | 6.52 | |
No religion
| 13 | 54.17 | 10 | 41.67 | 1 | 4.17 | |
Highest level of Education - Mother
| |||||||
No formal education
| 393 | 61.12 | 221 | 34.37 | 29 | 4.51 | 22.464 (0.085)*** |
Primary
| 220 | 59.46 | 132 | 35.68 | 18 | 4.86 | |
Secondary or High School
| 260 | 52.31 | 218 | 43.86 | 19 | 3.82 | |
Higher education
| 12 | 35.29 | 22 | 64.71 | 0 | 0.00 | |
Employment status - Mother
| |||||||
Unemployed
| 127 | 66.49 | 61 | 31.94 | 3 | 1.57 | 8.037 (0.075)* |
Employed
| 710 | 56.57 | 493 | 39.28 | 52 | 4.14 | |
Health Insurance status
| |||||||
Uninsured
| 722 | 61.71 | 386 | 32.99 | 62 | 5.30 | 64.987 (0.205)*** |
Insured
| 163 | 43.58 | 207 | 55.35 | 4 | 1.07 | |
Sex of Household head
| |||||||
Male
| 654 | 56.62 | 453 | 39.22 | 48 | 4.16 | 1.329 (0.029) |
Female
| 231 | 59.38 | 140 | 35.99 | 18 | 4.63 | |
Household wealth
| |||||||
Poorest
| 337 | 64.93 | 152 | 29.29 | 30 | 5.78 | 58.270 (0.137)*** |
Poorer
| 212 | 61.99 | 114 | 33.33 | 16 | 4.68 | |
Middle
| 162 | 54.55 | 127 | 42.76 | 8 | 2.69 | |
Rich
| 107 | 47.77 | 109 | 48.66 | 8 | 3.57 | |
Richest
| 67 | 41.36 | 91 | 56.17 | 4 | 2.47 | |
DHS Period
| |||||||
1993 GDHS
| 48 | 48.98 | 39 | 39.80 | 11 | 11.22 | 63.556 (0.144)*** |
1998 GDHS
| 296 | 69.00 | 107 | 24.94 | 26 | 6.06 | |
2003 GDHS
| 189 | 54.00 | 149 | 42.57 | 12 | 3.43 | |
2008 GHDS
| 164 | 54.13 | 130 | 42.90 | 9 | 2.97 | |
2014 GDHS
| 188 | 51.65 | 168 | 46.15 | 8 | 2.20 | |
***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05 |
Medical Care | Design Effect | Self-Care or Traditional healer | Design Effect | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
RRR (95 % CI ) | P-value | DEFF | DEFT | RRR (95 % CI ) | P-value | DEFF | DEFT | |
Child Age
| ||||||||
4 years (ref)
| ||||||||
3 years
| 0.998 (0.621 -1.602) | 0.992 | 1.166 | 1.079 | 0.709 (0.283 - 1.778) | 0.463 | 1.094 | 1.046 |
2 years
| 1.498 (0.952 - 2.359) | 0.081 | 1.209 | 1.099 | 0.720 (0.282 - 1.835) | 0.490 | 1.160 | 1.077 |
1 year
| 1.928 (1.276 - 2.915)** | 0.002 | 1.108 | 1.053 | 0.486 (0.179 - 1.319) | 0.157 | 1.273 | 1.128 |
less than 1 year
| 1.520 (0.973 - 2.372) | 0.066 | 1.171 | 1.082 | 0.527 (0.226 - 1.225) | 0.137 | 1.047 | 1.023 |
Child Sex
| ||||||||
Male (ref)
| ||||||||
Female
| 0.967 (0.748 - 1.249) | 0.800 | 1.261 | 1.123 | 0.726 (0.421 - 1.254) | 0.251 | 1.091 | 1.045 |
Place of residence
| ||||||||
Urban (ref)
| ||||||||
Rural
| 0.840 (0.577 - 1.223) | 0.362 | 1.366 | 1.169 | 1.346 (0.597 - 3.037) | 0.474 | 1.223 | 1.106 |
Maternal Age
| ||||||||
15-19 years (ref)
| ||||||||
20-24 years
| 1.063 (0.565 - 2.001) | 0.849 | 1.125 | 1.061 | 0.583 (0.110 - 3.078) | 0.524 | 1.632 | 1.277 |
25-29 years
| 1.308 (0.677 - 2.525) | 0.423 | 1.179 | 1.086 | 0.839 (0.153 - 4.577) | 0.839 | 1.703 | 1.305 |
30-34 years
| 1.037 (0.513 - 2.092) | 0.920 | 1.253 | 1.119 | 1.171 (0.217 - 6.309) | 0.854 | 1.656 | 1.287 |
35-39 years
| 1.414 (0.706 - 2.833) | 0.328 | 1.156 | 1.075 | 0.824 (0.129 - 5.255) | 0.838 | 1.689 | 1.299 |
40-44 years
| 1.404 (0.659 - 2.991) | 0.378 | 1.149 | 1.072 | 0.164 (0.211 - 2.046) | 0.160 | 1.395 | 1.181 |
45-49 years
| 0.768 (0.299 - 1.977) | 0.583 | 1.147 | 1.071 | 1.499 (0.205 - 10.932) | 0.690 | 1.434 | 1.198 |
Marital Status - Mother
| ||||||||
Married (ref)
| ||||||||
Common-law
| 0.777 (0.522 - 1.156) | 0.211 | 1.360 | 1.660 | 2.542 (0.437 - 14.803) | 0.527 | 1.412 | 1.188 |
Widowed/divorced/separated
| 0.636 (0.377 - 1.073) | 0.090 | 1.284 | 1.133 | 1.335 (0.546 - 3.267) | 0.137 | 1.261 | 1.123 |
Never-in-union
| 1.459 (0.726 - 2.933) | 0.288 | 1.219 | 1.104 | 1.955 (0.808 - 4.727) | 0.299 | 1.346 | 1.160 |
Religion - Mother
| ||||||||
Christian (ref)
| ||||||||
Islam
| 0.970 (0.643 - 1.461) | 0.885 | 1.284 | 1.133 | 0.740 (0.278 - 1.970) | 0.546 | 1.047 | 1.024 |
Traditional
| 0.539 (0.220 - 1.319) | 0.176 | 0.952 | 0.976 | 1.830 (0.602 - 5.562) | 0.286 | 1.086 | 1.042 |
Other
| 0.613 (0.320 - 1.175) | 0.147 | 1.272 | 1.128 | 0.905 (0.318 - 2.572) | 0.851 | 1.073 | 1.036 |
No religion
| 1.701 (0.511 - 5.667) | 0.387 | 1.550 | 1.245 | 1.517 (0.165 - 13.953) | 0.712 | 0.997 | 0.998 |
Highest level of Education - Mother
| ||||||||
No formal education (ref)
| ||||||||
Primary
| 0.956 (0.658 - 1.387) | 0.815 | 1.399 | 1.183 | 1.191 (0.604 - 2.347) | 0.614 | 1.085 | 1.042 |
Secondary or High School
| 1.051 (0.722 - 1.530) | 0.792 | 1.424 | 1.193 | 1.390 (0.592 3.263) | 0.449 | 1.367 | 1.169 |
Higher education
| 1.784 (0.549 - 5.801) | 0.334 | 1.547 | 1.244 | 0.000 (0.000 - 0.000)*** | 0.000 | 1.421 | 1.192 |
Employment status - Mother
| ||||||||
Unemployed (ref)
| ||||||||
Employed
| 1.815 (1.202 - 2.740)** | 0.005 | 1.397 | 1.161 | 2.159 (0.719 - 6.482) | 0.170 | 1.162 | 1.078 |
Health Insurance status
| ||||||||
Uninsured (ref)
| ||||||||
Insured
| 2.681 (1.801 - 3.989)*** | 0.000 | 1.196 | 1.094 | 0.490 (0.142 - 1.686) | 0.257 | 1.589 | 1.261 |
Sex of Household head
| ||||||||
Male (ref)
| ||||||||
Female
| 0.874 (0.628 - 1.217) | 0.424 | 1.347 | 1.161 | 0.961 (0.502 - 1.838) | 0.903 | 1.121 | 1.059 |
Household wealth
| ||||||||
Poorest (ref)
| ||||||||
Poorer
| 1.225 (0.839 - 1.789) | 0.293 | 1.172 | 1.082 | 0.794 (0.363 - 1.631) | 0.529 | 1.295 | 1.138 |
Middle
| 2.186 (1.473 - 3.243)*** | 0.000 | 1.246 | 1.116 | 0.532 (0.226 - 1.251) | 0.148 | 1.173 | 1.083 |
Richer
| 1.908 (1.145 - 3.180)* | 0.013 | 1.378 | 1.174 | 1.024 (0.377 - 2.785) | 0.962 | 1.326 | 1.152 |
Richest
| 2.456 (1.363 - 4.424)** | 0.003 | 1.264 | 1.124 | 0.701 (0.180 - 2.731) | 0.609 | 1.367 | 1.169 |
DHS Period
| ||||||||
1993 GDHS (ref)
| ||||||||
1998 GDHS
| 0.426 (0.240 - 0.758)** | 0.004 | 1.397 | 1.182 | 0.330 (0.142 - 0.765)** | 0.010 | 1.061 | 1.030 |
2003 GDHS
| 0.973 (0.543 - 1.745) | 0.933 | 1.274 | 1.129 | 0.195 (0.071 - 0.535)** | 0.002 | 1.066 | 1.033 |
2008 GHDS
| 0.748 (0.394 - 1.423) | 0.379 | 1.312 | 1.146 | 0.216 (0.068 - 0.685)** | 0.009 | 1.069 | 1.034 |
2014 GDHS
| 0.509 (0.257 - 1.011) | 0.054 | 1.267 | 1.126 | 0.230 (0.081 - 0.657)** | 0.006 | 0.975 | 0.987 |
CI = Confidence Interval, ***p < 0.001, **p < 0.01, *p < 0.05 |
Mean (SD) | MOR | 95 % CI | |
---|---|---|---|
Intercept |
-1.599 (0.523)
|
0∙202
|
-2.641 - -0.584
|
Child Age
| |||
4 years (ref)
| |||
3 years
| 0.000 (0.222) | 1∙000 | -0.436 - 0.438 |
2 years
| 0.182 (0.21) | 1∙200 | -0.229 - 0.598 |
1 year
|
0.582 (0.198)
|
1∙790
|
0.195 - 0.974
|
less than 1 year
| 0.34 (0.206) | 1∙405 | -0.061 - 0.747 |
Child Sex
| |||
Male (ref)
| |||
Female
| -0.122 (0.114) | 0∙885 | -0.346 - 0.1 |
Place of residence
| |||
Urban (ref)
| |||
Rural
| -0.324 (0.168) | 0∙723 | -0.654 - 0.005 |
Maternal Age
| |||
15-19 years (ref)
| |||
20-24 years
| 0.246 (0.318) | 1∙279 | -0.367 - 0.883 |
25-29 years
| 0.412 (0.321) | 1∙510 | -0.206 - 1.055 |
30-34 years
| 0.187 (0.332) | 1∙206 | -0.453 - 0.850 |
35-39 years
| 0.502 (0.342) | 1∙652 | -0.157 - 1.184 |
40-44 years
| 0.451 (0.37) | 1∙570 | -0.268 - 1.186 |
45-49 years
| -0.352 (0.491) | 0∙703 | -1.330 - 0.599 |
Marital Status - Mother
| |||
Married (ref)
| |||
Common-law
| -0.198 (0.175) | 1∙501 | -0.545 - 0.143 |
Widowed/divorced/separated
| -0.390 (0.253) | 0∙820 | -0.896 - 0.099 |
Never-in-union
| 0.406 (0.321) | 0∙677 | -0.224 - 1.037 |
Religion - Mother
| |||
Christian (ref)
| |||
Islam
| -0.241 (0.182) | 0∙786 | -0.602 - 0.114 |
Traditional
|
-0.844 (0.321)
|
0∙430
|
-1.495 - -0.233
|
Other
| -0.401 (0.272) | 0∙670 | -0.949 - 0.122 |
No religion
| 0.033 (0.455) | 1∙034 | -0.873 - 0.916 |
Highest level of Education - Mother
| |||
No formal education (ref)
| |||
Primary
| -0.090 (0.163) | 0∙914 | -0.412 - 0.230 |
Secondary or High School
| 0.044 (0.169) | 1∙045 | -0.287 - 0.376 |
Post-secondary
| 0.137 (0.430) | 1∙147 | -0.691 - 0.997 |
Employment status - Mother
| |||
Unemployed (ref)
| |||
Employed
|
0.396 (0.178)
|
1∙486
|
0.049 - 0.748
|
Health Insurance status
| |||
Uninsured (ref)
| |||
Insured
|
0.890 (0.189)
|
2∙435
|
0.519 - 1.265
|
Sex of Household head
| |||
Male (ref)
| |||
Female
| -0.083 (0.147) | 0∙920 | -0.373 - 0.205 |
Household wealth
| |||
Poorest (ref)
| |||
Poorer
| 0.339 (0.174) | 1∙404 | -0.002 - 0.682 |
Middle
|
0.764 (0.191)
|
2∙147
|
0.391 - 1.141
|
Rich
|
0.790 (0.235)
|
2∙203
|
0.328 - 1.253
|
Richest
|
1.112 (0.295)
|
3∙040
|
0.535 - 1.694
|
DHS Period
| |||
1993 GDHS (ref)
| |||
1998 GDHS
| -0.460 (0.263) | 0∙631 | -0.976 - 0.059 |
2003 GDHS
| 0.280 (0.260) | 1∙323 | -0.226 - 0.794 |
2008 GHDS
| 0.001 (0.288) | 1∙001 | -0.561 - 0.568 |
2014 GDHS
| -0.187 (0.307) | 0∙829 | -0.788 - 0.417 |
Random Effect
| |||
Spatial Effect - structured (ICAR model) | 6.330 (3.898) | 1.707 - 16.407 | |
Spatial Effect - unstructured (IID model) | 1851.888 (1831.866) | 129.695 - 6687.717 | |
Model Diagnostics
| |||
WAIC
| 1905.08 | ||
DIC
| 1902.59 | ||
Effective Number of parameters (WAIC)
| 42.36 | ||
Marginal log-Likelihood
| -1102.10 | ||
Variance explained by spatial structure
| 0.010 | ||
Mean = Posterior means, SD = Standard deviation, MOR = Mean Odds Ratio, and CI = Confidence Interval |