Background
Study context and population
Street vendors
Home-based garment workers
Methods
SV (N = 24) | HBGW (N = 23) | |
---|---|---|
Mean [range] | ||
Age (years) | 34.54 [18–57] | 36.26 [20–56] |
Length of employment (years) | 10.61 [1–40] | 6.24 [0.5–25] |
Number of Children | 1.51 [0–5] | 1.3 [0–4] |
N(%) | ||
Gender | ||
Female | 16 (66.67) | 22 (95.65) |
Male | 8 (33.33) | 1 (4.35) |
Education | ||
Elementary or lower | 13 (54.17) | 5 (21.74) |
Middle school | 5 (20.83) | 7 (30.43) |
High school or higher | 6 (25) | 11 (47.83) |
Marital Status | ||
Single | 6 (25) | 7 (30.43) |
Married | 15 (62.5) | 13 (56.52) |
Divorced or widowed | 3 (12.5) | 3 (13.05) |
Migrant Status | ||
Yangon resident | 8 (33.33) | 8 (34.78) |
Migrant | 16 (66.67) | 15 (65.22) |
Housing Type | ||
Rental | 17 (71.9) | 14 (60.87) |
Informal Housing | 0 (0) | 6 (26.09) |
Family-owned | 7 (29.1) | 3 (13.04) |
Family Type | ||
Nuclear | 11 (45.8) | 11 (47.83) |
Extended | 13 (54.2) | 12 (52.17) |
Employment Status | ||
Self-employed | 22 (91.67) | 10 (43.48) |
Wage-employed | 1 (4.17) | 2 (8.7) |
Contributing family Member | 1 (4.17) | 3 (13.04) |
Subcontracted | 0 (0) | 8 (34.78) |
Results
Physical features of the workplace
Street vendors
Home-based garment workers
Environmental pollution
Street vendors also complained that they are regularly exposed to urban noise as they sell near other vendors and high vehicular traffic. Since Yangon’s traffic control and regulations are weak, vehicles compete for right of way, leading to incessant honking. Although noise levels vary depending on location, downtown areas tend to have a high concentration of vehicles which creates chronically noisy work environments that may negatively affect their health and quality of life.In the street where I used to sell, there was a storm drain and the lid covering it was usually open…the bad smell was there all the time. [I was there] for 3 years. During the monsoon season, the drain got full and garbage came up to the ground. I had to deal with that. Last year, there was a lot of flooding. [25-year-old SV, Male]
Similarly, many SVs reported exposure to vehicular fumes and pollutants due to heavy traffic congestion in downtown areas of Yangon. The city has seen more vehicles and traffic congestions since 2011 with the liberalization of the automotive industry.When there are traffic jams, I can hear the noise because I’m selling right next to the street. Noises like people angrily honking at other cars and other vendors arguing and fighting or just calling out loud for customers to buy from them. [24-year-old SV, Female]
Another common source of air pollution is cooking outdoors using charcoal, which releases harmful smoke containing toxic chemicals and heat. The use of charcoal as a cooking source is very common in LMICs [26] and linked to respiratory infections, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), lung cancer, tuberculosis, asthma, cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality in both adults and children [27]. In Yangon, some SVs, particularly those who prepare made-to-order dishes using large woks or flat pans, use charcoal stoves for cooking outdoors. One SV selling made-to-order dosa (Indian pancakes) using charcoal fuel discussed that her daily food preparations cause frequent eye irritations.I experience it [exposure to traffic fumes and noise] every day. Sometimes those car owners parked their vehicles near me and sat inside comfortably with the air conditioner on. For us, we suffer from the heat [exhaust fumes]. That’s the life of a street vendor. [27-year-old SV, Male]
She also added that although she has not faced serious health problems, her mother, who started the business and worked for about 20 years, has been experiencing obstructive lung disease, likely from chronic exposure to pollutants from burning charcoal.I usually keep the fire running until I run out of ingredients […] So the heat [and smoke] comes into my eyes and sometimes I get irritations and swollen eyes and also headaches. People warned that it’s because I stand close to the heat source. [24-year-old SV, Female]
When it rains, the smell is terrible. My neighbours are so dirty […] they just dump leftovers, rotten food and the polluted water to the ground. Because the houses are close, you can smell it […] when it rains, all the smell comes out. [52-year-old HBGW, Female]
Besides environmental pollution from proximate sources mentioned above, HBGWs living near factories are affected by pollution including dust, pungent smell from industrial waste, emissions, and side products. As they rely on natural lighting and few houses have proper windows to block undesirable smells, They are constantly exposed to the pollution in both working and non-working hours.The bike shop [next to my house] does welding so I frequently get the burning smell. Not all the time but whenever they use welding machine or do metal cutting for a repair work […] There is noise too, but the main problem is that burning smell. [33-year-old HBGW, Female]
Sometimes, when the alcohol factory dumped their waste, I got bad smell. In the summer, it’s also pungent smell from the fish sauce factory. When it comes, we simply can’t avoid it. It affects the entire neighbourhood…day and night…With that smell, we can’t eat. [46-year-old HBGW, Female]
The dust from the garments obstructs my airway. When I spread the garments, it releases small dusts. I couldn’t breathe well. I recovered from it but now it’s back. I need to see a doctor often and she gives me an injection which lasts 3 months […] When it gets worse and I can’t continue [working]. I just take a rest. And when I feel better, I just resume. [55-year-old HBGW, Female]
Weather effects
Sometimes when the rain is heavy, I have to stay in wet clothes the whole day. Although it’s raining a lot outside, I get up at 3am [and go the wholesale market] to get my merchandise. When it stops raining, my clothes get dry. Then it rains again and they get soaked again. I get sick from that and also get headache and nasal problems. [25-year-old SV, Female]
The effects of weather are particularly challenging for some SVs experiencing difficult life transitions such as pregnant SVs or elderly vendors whose health and functional ability are compromised by years of working in poor conditions. Despite these health conditions, they reported that they must continue to work for their survival. While income levels vary among SVs with some reporting earning relatively decent incomes (approximately $200 per month in high-selling seasons), SVs who earn low or erratic incomes from selling several trays of vegetables per day on a small margin do not earn sufficient savings. Thus, they cannot afford taking days off despite their health conditions because they do not have access to social security or sick leave.When there is a downpour. I use an umbrella when it’s heavy. But the wind is strong too. Gusty winds […] I can’t use the umbrella. I end up getting drenched in the rain, but I try to cover the fruits. [24-year-old SV, Female]
My back hurts and my legs also ache [from working]. With my pregnancy, it’s worse. In recent days, my body aches every day. It doesn’t help that I’ve been selling in the rain. I can’t sleep at night. I get back home around 10pm, have dinner and go to bed around 11pm. But I cannot fall asleep easily… I sometimes doubt if I can continue [working] the next day because my body hurts a lot, but I have no choice. It won’t make it easy for me either [if I don’t work]. I need to worry about making my ends meet. [34-year-old SV, Female]
Weather also poses income risks for both groups by interrupting daily routines and income which in turn increase their stress. Both groups mentioned that monsoon months, from mid-May to September, are associated with lower sales while the ‘dry’ season offers better economic prospects. Most SVs prefer sunny weather which encourages people to spend time outdoors. Monsoon has an opposite effect as it forces customers to stay indoors or away from makeshift stalls. A shoulder-pole vendor complained that rainy weather perennially exposes him to financial uncertainty and affects his ability to pay for housing rent and household expenditures.I had to be creative and made holes to the [bamboo] wall to make it better. In the summer, I get really sweaty as the room is filled with the pillow stuffing materials [that retain heat]. The only way to relieve this is to bring some air in. [20-year-old HBGW, Female]
I struggle a lot during the rainy season. It’s been a trend for a while now. The sales are meagre, and I borrow money from others […] Summer is usually better because it’s hot and people spend more time outside and buy from me […] in the monsoon season, I use my savings [from the summer] to pay for basic needs at home. [44-year-old SV, Male]
When the rain is heavy, it’s not great for me. I have to stay longer. Sometimes I cannot finish selling everything…I just have to sell it the next day. Sometimes, if I haven’t made my daily income, I just sit and wait whether customers come or not, and only go back home once they are finally sold out. [34-year-old SV, Female]
The stress of dealing with financial uncertainties is amplified when heavy monsoon rains cause flooding in downtown areas which invades SVs’ stalls and makes it difficult for them to continue daily activities. Some vendors cope with this interruption by relocating to less affected areas while others who lack that option halt their work until flooding subsides.When the sales are poor [because of weather], fruits ripen and get rotten quickly. Because I’m selling perishables [there is always a risk]. After one or two days, they change colour and after 3-4 days, you can see the blemishes. Then I have to lower the price or just discard the unsold ones. [36-year-old SV, Female]
When it [flooding] happens, I move to a different place and leave my shoulder pole …If it’s not raining heavily, I just try to sell. If flooding happens after I’m already out, there is nothing I can do about it. I can’t pack up and go back either so I just sit somewhere. [25-year-old SV, Male]
When water comes in, I cannot do my work anymore. I made a concrete floor and added bricks to prevent flooding. Even with that, water still came in the other day. The flooding was quite high that day […] When it happened, I couldn’t do work anymore and had to reschedule my order appointments. [55-year-old HBGW, Female]
Home-based garment workers cope with this by performing other tasks that do not require electricity while some use manual machines or sew by hand. Even for these workers, it is a challenge to work without electricity during monsoon season as natural lighting is inadequate and their work demands precision.I usually set a target on how many pieces I want to finish but with power outages it’s challenging. We have to finish 500 pieces this month and this specific design is complex. So, I need to be working pretty much all the time to get it done. Add to that my small child and other household chores, it becomes very stressful. [34-year-old HBGW, Female]
When it rains, the power is gone. Mine is a manual machine so I don’t need electricity. So, I can still do work if there is enough lighting. If the order is not urgent, I stop working but if it is, I use candle light…[it’s] better than just sitting and not doing anything. If I just stop working, I’ll be behind my work…When I do with candle light, it’s not as productive. I have to concentrate more and do it slower to avoid mistakes. [25-year-old HBGW, Female]
Ergonomics
Shoulder-poles and headload vendors complained that they experience pain due to carrying heavy loads that often include their daily merchandise, utensils for food preparation and in some cases, buckets of cleaning water. While some become used to the pain, chronic pain takes a toll on those doing these activities for years.Because I sit all the time, my neck gets tense and I feel drowsy. Sometimes I just take a nap leaning on the long container you see over there. Or if I feel too drowsy, I just sleep anywhere possible. Sometimes, [I nap] on the light truck parked behind me. [25-year-old SV, Female]
In addition, repetitive and overuse of a body part increases ergonomic risks for some SVs. The aforementioned dosa vendor discussed that besides pain from poor posture, her work that requires pouring the batter mixture into the hot pan with one hand while stirring with the other leads to muscle strain due to repetitive motions.One thing I notice is previously I carried things on my head but now I can’t do it anymore. Even for a small load, my head and back hurt and I get pain in my chest. I feel strange. I don’t feel good about myself because I used to be able to do these things. [51-year-old SV, Female].
I don’t feel it [the pain] while working but I feel it when I get up. My legs feel tense and I get neck pain and headache. I usually sit on the floor to cut garments. Perhaps it might be better to do it on a desk. But I have to do it there because the space is small. [27-year-old HBGW, Female]
My neck usually feels tense and I get headaches. I also had eye problems. I couldn’t open them […] My hands hurt too because I cut garments. Also, I have stay focused all the time because the designs are complicated. I also get headache from that. [50-year-old HBGW, Female]
Neighbourhood safety
I was waiting at the bus stop with my older sister early in the morning. And there was a driver. It was still dark at that time and he thought we were something [prostitutes]. He made attempts to harass us but luckily there were people nearby and they defended us […] Now we leave a bit later when we can see light. [18-year-old SV, Female]
Home based garment workers’ perceptions of neighbourhood safety are primarily based on their residential neighbourhoods. Many HBGWs felt safe working at home but those living in low-income neighbourhoods located on the periphery of the city where law enforcement and public safety measures are weaker mentioned that the prevalence of crime and violence poses safety concerns. These concerns were particularly common among HBGWs whose houses lack proper doors, walls and privacy and are located close to other houses.I have had some experience with drunk people…One guy asked me how much one basket of strawberries is, and I said 1000-1500 kyats. He then replied, “is it enough? How much is it if I upend the entire stand?” [32-year-old SV, Male]
In this street, it’s not safe during the monsoon season. There is theft and most people don’t have jobs… a lot of guys also are alcoholics and they keep monitoring other households [to steal things]. [25-year-old HBGW, Female]
Because I live close to a street corner, I am worried [about my own safety] … I encounter all kinds of people. Nothing terrible has happened to me so far but I usually see people who are drunk or yelling at others…I try not to go out to dangerous areas in the evening because I hear all the bad things happening. [At night] I block the door with a bike and then set the lock. When I sleep, I have something [a self-defensive tool] next to me. [46-year-old HBGW, Female]