Background
Methods
Study design
Study setting and population
Data collection
Data analysis
Results
Characteristics of study participants
Characteristics | Male N (%) | Female N (%) | P value |
---|---|---|---|
Age | |||
30–39 years | 179 (29.2) | 192 (21.7) | 0.001 |
25–29 years | 194 (31.7) | 260 (29.3) | |
18–24 years | 240 (39.2) | 435 (49.0) | |
Marital statusa | |||
Married | 256 (41.8) | 503 (56.7) | < 0.001 |
Single | 334 (54.5) | 319 (36.0) | |
Separated, Divorced, Widowed | 22 (3.6) | 65 (7.3) | |
Level of educationa | |||
Higher education | 197 (32.1) | 187 (21.1) | < 0.001 |
Secondary | 223 (36.4) | 303 (34.2) | |
Primary and below | 192 (31.3) | 397 (44.8) | |
Religiona | |||
Christian | 466 (76.0) | 697 (78.6) | 0.123 |
Muslim | 132 (21.5) | 181 (20.4) | |
None | 14 (2.9) | 9 (1.0) | |
Source of incomea | |||
Employed | 391 (63.8) | 431 (48.6) | < 0.001 |
Unemployed | 105 (17.1) | 354 (39.9) | |
Casual labourers | 116 (18.9) | 102 (11.5) | |
Having childrena | |||
Yes | 261 (42.6) | 585 (66.0) | < 0.001 |
No | 351 (57.3) | 302 (34.1) | |
Time since last sexual activitya | |||
≤ 6 weeks ago | 414 (67.5) | 679 (76.6) | 0.001 |
More than 6 weeks ago | 191 (31.2) | 203 (22.9) | |
Never had sex | 7 (1.1) | 5 (0.6) | |
Experience of intimate partner violence (IPV)b | |||
Never | 506 (82.5) | 673 (75.9) | 0.007 |
Any IPV in the past 1 month | 25 (4.1) | 41 (4.6) | |
Any IPV > 1 month ago | 81 (13.2) | 173 (19.5) | |
Temperature | |||
< 37.5 | 499 (81.4) | 764 (86.1) | 0.014 |
≥ 37.5 | 114 (18.6) | 123 (13.9) | |
Reported fever | 324 (52.9) | 396 (44.6) | 0.002 |
Reported fatigue | 473 (77.2) | 695 (78.4) | 0.584 |
Reported body aches | 410 (66.9) | 603 (68.0) | 0.655 |
Reported diarrhoea | 104 (17.0) | 138 (15.6) | 0.466 |
Reported sore throat | 193 (31.5) | 255 (28.8) | 0.255 |
Reported genital ulcers | 42 (6.9) | 71 (8.0) | 0.406 |
Days since symptoms began | |||
≤ 14 days | 569 (92.8) | 849 (95.7) | 0.015 |
Time since last HIV test | |||
≤ 1 year ago | 260 (42.4) | 473 (53.3) | < 0.001 |
More than 1 year ago | 250 (40.8) | 364 (41.0) | |
Never tested | 103 (16.8) | 50 (5.6) | |
Sexual behaviour among 414 male and 679 female participants sexually active in the past 6 weeksc | |||
Risk group | |||
Sexually active general population | 396 (95.7) | 655 (96.5) | 0.497 |
Sexually active key populations’d | 18 (4.4) | 24 (3.5) | |
Self-reported number of sexual partners in the past 6 weeks | |||
1 partner | 321 (77.5) | 625 (92.1) | < 0.001 |
> 1 partner | 93 (22.5) | 54 (8.0) | |
Nature of relationship with the most recent sexual partner in the past 6 weeks | |||
Spouse | 219 (52.9) | 473 (69.7) | < 0.001 |
Regular partnere | 93 (22.5) | 125 (18.4) | |
Casual partner | 65 (15.7) | 71 (10.5) | |
One-time encounter | 37 (8.9) | 10 (1.5) | |
Condom use with the last sexual partnerf | |||
No | 332 (80.2) | 615 (90.6) | < 0.001 |
Yes | 82 (19.8) | 64 (9.4) | |
Age of last sexual partner in the past 6 weeks | |||
About the same age | 226 (54.6) | 309 (45.5) | < 0.001 |
More than 5 years older | 21 (5.1) | 361 (53.2) | |
More than 5 years younger | 167 (40.3) | 9 (1.3) | |
HIV status of last sexual partner in the past 6 weeks | |||
Partner status negative or unknown | 400 (96.6) | 667 (98.2) | 0.089 |
Partner status positive | 14 (3.4) | 12 (1.8) | |
Concurrency amongst the last three reported sexual partners | |||
No | 352 (85.0) | 642 (94.6) | < 0.001 |
Yes | 62 (15.0) | 37 (5.5) |
HIV testing history
HIV testing among men
Multinomial logistic regression of HIV testing history outcome, with on-time testing (i.e., testing ≤ 1 year) as the reference category | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Males | Females | |||||||
Tested > 1 year ago | Never tested | Tested > 1 year ago | Never tested | |||||
Participant characteristics | RRR (95% CI) | Wald p value | RRR (95% CI) | Wald p value | RRR (95% CI) | Wald p value | RRR (95% CI) | Wald p value |
Age | ||||||||
30–39 years | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | ||||
25–29 years | 0.81 (0.52, 1.25) | 0.341 | 0.90 (0.47, 1.74) | 0.766 | 0.89 (0.61, 1.30) | 0.540 | 6.5 (0.81, 52.10) | 0.078 |
18–24 years | 0.74 (0.48, 1.13) | 0.163 | 1.91 (1.07, 3.40) | 0.028 | 0.90 (0.64, 1.28) | 0.566 | 18.49 (2.51, 136.33) | 0.004 |
Marital statusa | ||||||||
Married | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | ||||
Single | 1.01 (0.71, 1.43) | 0.977 | 1.93 (1.18, 3.17) | 0.009 | 1.06 (0.79, 1.43) | 0.689 | 8.31 (3.93, 17.55) | < 0.001 |
Separated, Divorced, Widowed | 0.83 (0.32, 2.18) | 0.703 | 1.53 (0.45, 5.23) | 0.495 | 0.94 (0.55, 1.58) | 0.809 | - | - |
Level of educationa | ||||||||
Higher education | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | ||||
Secondary | 1.84 (1.21,2.80) | 0.004 | 2.02 (1.11, 3.65) | 0.021 | 1.08 (0.73, 1.59) | 0.700 | 0.95 (0.48, 1.87) | 0.881 |
Primary and below | 1.57 (1.01, 2.44) | 0.046 | 2.60 (1.44, 4.69) | 0.001 | 1.13 (0.78, 1.62) | 0.521 | 0.29 (0.13, 0.67) | 0.003 |
Religiona | ||||||||
Christian | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | ||||
Muslim | 1.53 (0.99, 2.34) | 0.054 | 1.33 (0.76, 2.34) | 0.321 | 0.89 (0.63, 1.24) | 0.483 | 0.39 (0.15, 1.01) | 0.053 |
None | 0.37 (0.10, 1.39) | 0.142 | 0.59 (0.13, 2.80) | 0.508 | 2.56 (0.63, 10.32) | 0.187 | - | - |
Source of incomea | ||||||||
Employed | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | ||||
Unemployed | 0.94 (0.58, 1.53) | 0.799 | 1.53 (0.86, 2.75) | 0.150 | 0.93 (0.69, 1.24) | 0.616 | 1.87 (1.02, 3.45) | 0.044 |
Casual labourers | 1.74 (1.10, 2.77) | 0.019 | 1.58 (0.85, 2.92) | 0.146 | 1.19 (0.77, 1.84) | 0.437 | 0.47 (0.11, 2.08) | 0.319 |
Having childrena | ||||||||
Yes | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | ||||
No | 0.92 (0.65, 1.30) | 0.627 | 1.54 (0.95, 2.48) | 0.079 | 1.19 (0.88, 1.60) | 0.254 | 59.47 (14.25, 248.11) | < 0.001 |
Time since last sexual activitya | ||||||||
≤ 6 weeks ago | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | ||||
More than 6 weeks ago | 1.59 (1.08, 2.34) | 0.018 | 2.20 (1.35, 3.57) | 0.002 | 1.44 (1.03, 2.02) | 0.031 | 5.18 (2.84, 9.47) | < 0.001 |
Never had sex | 1.80 (0.30, 10.88) | 0.524 | 3.34 (0.46, 24.27) | 0.232 | 2.12 (0.35, 12.76) | 0.413 | - | - |
Experience of IPVa, b | ||||||||
Never | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | ||||
Any IPV in the past 1 month | 1.74 (0.71, 4.28) | 0.230 | 1.23 (0.36, 4.18) | 0.743 | 0.77 (0.40, 1.46) | 0.419 | - | - |
Any IPV > 1 month ago | 1.04 (0.63, 1.72) | 0.880 | 0.68 (0.32, 1.43) | 0.312 | 0.70 (0.50, 1.00) | 0.049 | 0.20 (0.06, 0.67) | 0.009 |
Temperature | ||||||||
< 37.5 | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | ||||
≥ 37.5 | 1.17 (0.74, 1.84) | 0.503 | 1.53 (0.87, 2.69) | 0.136 | 1.20 (0.81, 1.78) | 0.359 | 1.10 (0.47, 2.55) | 0.825 |
Reported fever | 1.23 (0.87, 1.75) | 0.240 | 1.19 (0.75, 1.88) | 0.453 | 0.98 (0.74, 1.29) | 0.884 | 1.61 (0.89, 2.89) | 0.113 |
Reported fatigue | 0.99 (0.66, 1.49) | 0.971 | 1.27 (0.72, 2.24) | 0.405 | 1.12 (0.80, 1.57) | 0.497 | 0.66 (0.35, 1.25) | 0.201 |
Reported body aches | 0.93 (0.64, 1.34) | 0.683 | 1.08 (0.66, 1.76) | 0.765 | 1.31 (0.97, 1.77) | 0.073 | 0.65 (0.36, 1.17) | 0.153 |
Reported diarrhoea | 0.78 (0.49, 1.23) | 0.281 | 0.72 (0.38, 1.34) | 0.297 | 0.88 (0.60, 1.28) | 0.496 | 0.98 (0.44, 2.17) | 0.959 |
Reported sore throat | 1.04 (0.72, 1.51) | 0.830 | 0.71 (0.42, 1.18) | 0.188 | 0.95 (0.70, 1.29) | 0.746 | 0.68 (0.33, 1.35) | 0.262 |
Reported genital ulcers | 0.78 (0.40, 1.53) | 0.466 | 0.58 (0.21, 1.58) | 0.288 | 0.79 (0.47, 1.31) | 0.363 | 0.65 (0.20, 2.20) | 0.493 |
Days since symptoms began | ||||||||
≤ 14 days | 0.59 (0.29, 1.18) | 0.136 | 0.68 (0.27, 1.66) | 0.394 | 0.72 (0.37, 1.39) | 0.326 | 1.94 (0.25, 14.83) | 0.524 |
Sexual risk behaviour characteristics among 414 male and 679 female participants sexually active in the past 6 weeks | ||||||||
Risk group | ||||||||
Sexually active general population | [ref] | 0.731 | [ref] | 0.290 | [ref] | [ref] | ||
Sexually active key populationc | 1.21 (0.41, 3.51) | 1.98 (0.56, 7.01) | 0.75 (0.31, 1.78) | 0.509 | 1.12 (0.14, 8.86) | 0.916 | ||
Self-reported number of sexual partners in the past 6 weeks | ||||||||
1 partner | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | ||||
> 1 partner | 1.09 (0.67, 1.77) | 0.727 | 0.37 (0.15, 0.92) | 0.032 | 0.40 (0.20, 0.77) | 0.006 | 0.82 (0.19, 3.62) | 0.792 |
Nature of relationship with the most recent sexual partner in the past 6 weeks | ||||||||
Spouse | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | ||||
Regular partnerd | 0.69 (0.41, 1.17) | 0.167 | 0.90 (0.42, 1.92) | 0.781 | 0.85 (0.56, 1.29) | 0.448 | 2.97 (1.13, 7.79) | 0.027 |
Casual partner | 1.03 (0.56, 1.89) | 0.922 | 1.47 (0.65, 3.33) | 0.355 | 0.98 (0.58, 1.64) | 0.933 | 2.74 (0.82, 9.16) | 0.102 |
One-time encounter | 1.04 (0.47, 2.26) | 0.930 | 2.00 (0.77, 5.20) | 0.157 | 0.68 (0.17, 2.76) | 0.590 | 4.45 (0.49, 40.53) | 0.185 |
Condom use with the last sexual partner e | ||||||||
No | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | ||||
Yes | 0.68 (0.40, 1.16) | 0.159 | 0.80 (0.38, 1.67) | 0.548 | 0.76 (0.44, 1.33) | 0.339 | 2.53 (0.89, 7.20) | 0.082 |
Age of last sexual partner in the past 6 weeks | ||||||||
About the same age | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | ||||
More than 5 years older | 2.18 (0.81, 5.87) | 0.122 | 1.63 (0.40, 6.68) | 0.498 | 1.11 (0.81, 1.52) | 0.506 | 0.68 (0.29, 1.58) | 0.369 |
More than 5 years younger | 1.31 (0.85, 2.03) | 0.218 | 1.30 (0.71, 2.39) | 0.395 | 1.88 (0.50, 7.16) | 0.352 | - | - |
HIV status of last sexual partner in the past 6 weeks | ||||||||
Partner status negative or unknown | [ref] | 0.605 | [ref] | 0.403 | [ref] | 0.547 | [ref] | - |
Partner status positive | 0.74 (0.24, 2.31) | 0.41 (0.05, 3.33) | 1.42 (0.45, 4.45) | - | ||||
Concurrency amongst the last three reported sexual partners | ||||||||
No | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | [ref] | ||||
Yes | 1.46 (0.83, 2.57) | 0.186 | 0.46 (0.15, 1.37) | 0.162 | 0.45 (0.21, 0.98) | 0.044 | 0.60 (0.08, 4.63) | 0.625 |
HIV testing among women
New HIV diagnosis
Factors associated with new HIV diagnosis
Logistic regression for new HIV diagnosis outcome | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Participant characteristics | Males | Females | ||
OR (95% CI) | Wald p value | OR (95% CI) | Wald p value | |
Age | ||||
30–39 years | [ref] | [ref] | ||
25–29 years | 0.16 (0.03, 0.73) | 0.018 | 1.50 (0.50, 4.45) | 0.469 |
18–24 years | 0.26 (0.08, 0.83) | 0.023 | 0.44 (0.12, 1.52) | 0.192 |
Marital statusa | ||||
Married | [ref] | [ref] | ||
Single | 0.30 (0.09, 0.96) | 0.043 | 1.11 (0.42, 2.94) | 0.840 |
Separated, Divorced, Widowed | 3.88 (0.99, 15.32) | 0.053 | 2.39 (0.64, 8.90) | 0.196 |
Level of educationa | ||||
Higher education | [ref] | [ref] | ||
Secondary | 0.88 (0.18, 4.42) | 0.878 | 1.24 (0.22, 6.82) | 0.807 |
Primary and below | 3.93 (1.08, 14.31) | 0.038 | 3.38 (0.76, 15.03) | 0.110 |
Religiona | ||||
Christian | [ref] | [ref] | ||
Muslim | 1.29 (0.40, 4.13) | 0.665 | 0.67 (0.20, 2.33) | 0.533 |
None | 6.89 (1.38, 34.56) | 0.019 | - | - |
Source of incomea | ||||
Employed | [ref] | [ref] | ||
Unemployed | 0.82 (0.18, 3.87) | 0.807 | 0.97 (0.38, 2.49) | 0.955 |
Casual labourers | 2.32 (0.81, 6.65) | 0.119 | 0.84 (0.18, 3.90) | 0.826 |
Having childrena | ||||
Yes | [ref] | [ref] | ||
No | 0.04 (0.01, 0.33) | 0.002 | 0.48 (0.16, 1.44) | 0.189 |
Time since last sexual activitya | ||||
≤ 6 weeks ago | [ref] | [ref] | ||
More than 6 weeks ago | 0.90 0.31, 2.59) | 0.846 | 0.83 (0.28, 2.52) | 0.746 |
Never had sex | - | - | - | - |
Experience of IPVa,b | ||||
Never | [ref] | [ref] | ||
Any IPV in the past 1 month | 1.46 (0.18, 11.60) | 0.718 | - | - |
Any IPV > 1 month ago | 0.89 (0.20, 3.99) | 0.879 | 1.69 (0.64, 4.47) | 0.289 |
Temperature | ||||
< 37.5 | [ref] | [ref] | ||
≥ 37.5 | 1.36 (0.43, 4.25) | 0.597 | 2.12 (0.75, 5.93) | 0.154 |
Reported fever | 1.00 (0.38, 2.64) | 0.994 | 2.96 (1.13, 7.78) | 0.028 |
Reported fatigue | 1.39 (0.39, 4.92) | 0.607 | 0.50 (0.20, 1.28) | 0.150 |
Reported body aches | 0.55 (0.21, 1.44) | 0.222 | 0.46 (0.19, 1.12) | 0.088 |
Reported diarrhoea | 1.53 (0.49, 4.78) | 0.468 | 0.96 (0.28, 3.31) | 0.944 |
Reported sore throat | 1.54 (0.58, 4.12) | 0.386 | 1.67 (0.68, 4.14) | 0.266 |
Reported genital ulcers | 1.85 (0.41, 8.39) | 0.423 | 1.29 (0.29, 5.65) | 0.740 |
Days since symptoms began | ||||
≤ 14 days | 0.12 (0.04, 0.36) | < 0.001 | 0.39 (0.09, 1.74) | 0.218 |
Time since last HIV test | ||||
≤ 1 year ago | [ref] | [ref] | ||
More than 1 year ago | 1.04 (0.30, 3.64) | 0.950 | 1.81 (0.72, 4.55) | 0.206 |
Never tested | 3.72 (1.15, 12.00) | 0.028 | 1.19 (0.15, 9.68) | 0.873 |
Sexual risk behaviour characteristics among 414 male and 679 female participants sexually active in the past 6 weeks | ||||
Risk group | ||||
Sexually active general population | [ref] | 0.054 | [ref]) | |
Sexually active key populationc | 4.83 (0.98, 23.86) | - | - | |
Self-reported number of sexual partners in the past 6 weeks | ||||
1 partner | [ref] | [ref] | ||
> 1 partner | 2.55 (0.79, 8.23) | 0.118 | - | - |
Nature of relationship with the most recent sexual partner in the past 6 weeks | ||||
Spouse | [ref] | [ref] | ||
Regular partnerd | 0.39 (0.05, 3.25) | 0.381 | 1.93 (0.65, 5.75) | 0.238 |
Casual partner | 1.72 (0.42, 7.07) | 0.453 | 0.66 (0.08, 5.25) | 0.696 |
One-time encounter | 2.03 (0.39, 10.45) | 0.398 | - | - |
Condom use with the last sexual partnere | ||||
No | [ref] | [ref] | ||
Yes | 3.01 (0.93, 9.75) | 0.065 | 2.28 (0.63, 8.21) | 0.209 |
Age of last sexual partner in the past 6 weeks | ||||
About the same age | [ref] | [ref] | ||
More than 5 years older | 2.21 (0.25, 19.85) | 0.479 | 1.10 (0.41, 3.00) | 0.847 |
More than 5 years younger | 1.65 (0.49, 5.49) | 0.417 | - | - |
HIV status of last sexual partner in the past 6 weeks | ||||
Partner status negative or unknown | [ref] | [ref] | 0.202 | |
Partner status positive | - | - | 3.95 (0.48, 32.60) | |
Concurrency amongst the last three reported sexual partners | ||||
No | [ref] | [ref] | ||
Yes | 1.94 (0.51, 7.37) | 0.332 | - | - |
New HIV diagnosis and testing history
New diagnoses (n, % of diagnoses) | Odds Ratio (95% Confidence Interval) | Wald p value | Adjusted Odds Ratio (95% Confidence Interval) | Wald p value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Testing history, among 613 male participantsa | |||||
Within past year | 5 (29.4) | Reference | Reference | ||
> 1 year ago | 5 (29.4) | 1.04 (0.30, 3.64) | 0.950 | 1.09 (0.28 4.22) | 0.903 |
Never tested | 7 (41.2) | 3.72 (1.15, 12.00) | 0.028 | 5.35 (1.37, 20.87) | 0.016 |
Testing history, among 887 female participantsb | |||||
Within past year | 8 (40.0) | Reference | Reference | ||
> 1 year ago | 11 (55.0) | 1.81 (0.72, 4.55) | 0.206 | 1.91 (0.76, 4.83) | 0.169 |
Never tested | 1 (5.0) | 1.19 (0.15, 9.68) | 0.873 | 1.09 (0.13, 8.93) | 0.937 |