Impact statements
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Medication errors are common in outpatient and ambulatory settings, with prescribing errors and dosing errors being the most prevalent.
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Latent conditions, including inadequate training or knowledge, were more common followed by active failures. Mistakes and violations were the most frequent contributory factors related to active failures.
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There is a need for the development of theory-based multifactorial interventions to minimize medication errors in outpatient and ambulatory settings.
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Randomized controlled trials are needed to develop and evaluate the long-term outcomes of complex interventions in these settings.
Introduction
Aim
Method
Eligibility criteria
Data sources and search strategy
Study selection
Data extraction
Risk of bias
Data synthesis and statistical analysis
Results
Study selection
Author | Country, setting | Duration | Study design | Participant sampling and recruitment, total number of participants | Total number of observations (denominator) | Population/data characteristics | Study outcomes | Medication most frequently attributed with ME |
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Abramson E et al [43] | USA, ambulatory care centers | 15 months | Non-randomized cross-sectional study | All prescriptions were evaluated, ensuring that at least 75 prescriptions on 25 per provider patients were obtained and extending data collection if necessary. Prescription review was limited to three randomly selected prescriptions per patient to minimize clustering of errors | 5955 patients (9385 prescriptions) | New York: Mean age: 54 years (SD 17), Female: 2388 (63%) Massachusetts: Mean age: 51 years (SD 18), Female: 1324 (62%) | PE Types of PE Intervention Contributory factors | Antibiotics: 1516 (16.4%) Dyslipidemia drugs: 530 (5.7%) Narcotics: 500 (5.4%) |
Abramson E et al [44] | USA, outpatient clinic | 3 months | Mixed methods cross-sectional case study | Electronic prescriptions were extracted from the electronic database for a 2-week period | 920 patients (1905 prescriptions) | Mean age: 57 years (SD 16), Female: 632 (69.2%) | PE Types of PE Contributory factors | Vitamins: 9 (12.7%) Inhaled bronchodilators: 5 (7.0%) Antihistamines: 4 (5.6%) |
Bell S et al. [45] | USA, ambulatory care practices | 5 months | Survey study | NR | 22,889 patients | Mean age: 55.16 years (SD 15.96), Female: 14 447 (63.1%) | Overall serious ME Contributory factors | NR |
Bicket M et al. [46] | USA, outpatient departments at a tertiary medical center | 15 days | Retrospective study | All opioid medication prescriptions received and processed by one outpatient pharmacy for 15 consecutive days | 451 patients (510 prescriptions) | Mean age: 47.5 years (SD 17.4), Handwritten prescriptions: 234 (47%) | Overall ME Contributory factors | Study focused on opioids only Tablet form: 92% |
Dempsey J et al. [47] | USA, heart failure clinic, or Ambulatory Cardiac Triage, Intervention, and Education unit | 5 months | Cross-sectional study | Consecutive visits to the heart failure subspecialty clinic, or ACTIVE unit, that included pharmacist consultation | 60 patients | Mean age: 69, Male: 36 (60%), Mean number of medications: 14 | PE Types of PE Intervention Contributory factors | Study focused on heart failure only NR |
Howard M et al.[48] | USA, family medicine, internal medicine, and geriatrics clinics | 6 months | Retrospective chart review | Patients were identified by the institution’s electronic health record by having an active DOACs on their medication list for the study duration | 167 patients (167 drugs/prescriptions) | Mean age: 69.7 years (SD 15.5). Female: 68 (40.7%) | Dosing errors Contributory factors | Study focused on DOACs only |
Prasad D et al.[49] | India, outpatient general medicine department | 6 months | Cross sectional, interventional study | All patients who visited the clinic and met the inclusion criteria were collected randomly at the dispensing area in the pharmacy | 544 patients (544 prescriptions, 1768 drugs) | Age 41–50: 68 (22%), Female: 169 (56%), Diagnosis not mentioned: 73 (24.1%) | Overall ME ME according to the use process Types of PE Severity Contributory factors | Vitamins: 386 (21.8%) Gastrointestinal drugs: 370 (20.9%) NSAIDs: 307 (17.4) |
Priya K et al. [50] | India, outpatients in a hospital | 12 months | Prospective study | NR | 23,750 drugs | NR | PE Types of PE Severity Intervention Contributory factors | NR |
Shakuntala B et al. [51] | India, outpatient ophthalmology department at a hospital | 4 months | Prospective, observational, and cross-sectional study | Adult patients who registered newly and visiting ophthalmology outpatient department for curable complaints were included | 900 patients (900 prescriptions, 1400 antibiotic) | Age 31–60: 423 (47%), Female: 378 (42%), Mean drugs/prescription: 2.62 | PE Types of PE | Study focused on antibiotics only Fluoroquinolones: 1218 (87%) Eye drops: 69% |
Thakur et al. [52] | India, medicine department in a hospital | 5 months | Prospective cohort study | NR | 100 patients | NR | Overall ME | NR |
Al-Khani S et al. [53] | Saudi Arabia, ambulatory care setting | 21 months | Retrospective study | All prescribing errors reported during the duration of the study were included | NR | NR | PE Types of PE Contributory factors | NR |
Assiri G et al. [54] | Saudi Arabia, family medicine clinics | 18 months | Retrospective cohort study | Several ambulatory care centers were contacted for fieldwork selection. Family Medicine clinics in two hospitals were selected. A random sample of patients visiting the clinics was generated | 2000 patients | Mean age: 49.9 years, Female: 1302 (65.1%), Polypharmacy: 1,115 (55.8%) | Overall clinically important ME ME according to the use process Types of PE Contributory factors | NR |
Carollo J et al.[55] | Brazil, outpatient chemotherapy unit of a teaching hospital | 3 months | Cross-sectional and descriptive study | The calculation of minimal sample to develop the study was based on 12,778 health care procedures done in 2015. Recruitment not mentioned | 1403 patients [1, 403 healthcare procedures] | Mean age: 57.6 years (SD 15.2), Female: 819 (58.4%) | Overall ME ME according to the use process Types of PE Severity Contributory factors | Study focused on chemotherapy only IV route of administration: 680 (48.5%) |
Duarte et al. [56] | Brazil, outpatient oncology and chemotherapy clinic at a hospital | 6 months | Prospective observational study | Prescriptions for all patients who were treated with chemotherapy during the study period were delivered daily to the chemotherapy pharmacy service by the nursing staff and/or clinical staff | 780 patients (3526 prescriptions) | Mean age: 60.6 years (SD 13.2), Female: 262 (33.64%) | PE Types of PE Severity Intervention Contributory factors | Study focused on chemotherapy only |
Al Khawaldeh T et al. [57] | Jordan, hematology and oncology outpatient departments at hospitals | 6 weeks | Prospective cross-sectional study | NR | 334 drugs administered/prescriptions | NR | Administration errors Contributory factors | Study focused on IV chemotherapy only |
Belaiche S et al. [58] | France, outpatient nephrology clinics at a university hospital | 15 months | Retrospective study | All patients seen by the clinical pharmacist during the study duration but analyzed the data of only those patients seen more than twice, so as to observe any benefit from the introduction of pharmaceutical care | 42 patients (350 pharmaceutical consultations, 287 drugs) | Mean age: 64.9 years (SD 2.2), Female: 21 (50%), Stage 4 CKD: 17 (40.5%), Stage 3 CKD: 16 (38.1%), Mean number of drugs: 8.6 (SD 0.6) | Overall ME ME according to the use process Types of PE Intervention Contributory factors | Cardiovascular drugs: 95 (33.1%) Gastrointestinal drugs: 82 (28.6%) Blood and blood derivatives: 62 (21.6%) |
Hernández S et al. [59] | Puerto Rico, 330 ambulatory health care centers | 4 years | Observational retrospective cohort study | The study sample was selected by convenience in a nonrandomized selection from event reports completed in those years | 2218 patients | Mean age: 73.4 (SD 7.4), Female: 112 (65.9%), Mean number of medications: 6.8 (SD 3.9) | Overall ME ME according to the use process Severity Contributory factors | Anticoagulants: p-value < 0.001 |
Kim G et al. [60] | South Korea, 43 medical institutions with hemodialysis facility | 3 months | Cross-sectional study | 10% of centers with hemodialysis were selected by systematic sampling. Nurses in filled out the questionnaire using medical records and hemodialysis data to recruit all patients who met the inclusion criteria | 828 patients (1097 drugs) | Age 18–49: 230 (27.8%), age 50–59: 231 (27.9%), male: 497 (60%), GFR < 10 mL/min/1.73 m2: 785 (94.8%), duration of hemodialysis 1–5 years: 376 (45.4%) | Dosing errors Contributory factors | Study focused on 85 drugs in three classes: antihypertensives, antihyperglycemics and dyslipidemia drugs |
Lee P et al. [61] | Singapore, kidney transplant ambulatory clinic | 19 months | Prospective observational study | All ME and medication discrepancies documented at the clinic during the study duration were retrieved from the system for analysis | 1271 patients (3581 prescriptions) | NR | PE Types of PE Intervention Contributory factors | Immunosuppressive drugs: 25.3% Anti-infectives: 14.1% Antihypertensive drugs: 12.0% |
Niriayo Y et al.[62] | Ethiopia, ambulatory care heart failure clinic at a teaching hospital | 12 months | Prospective observational study | Patients were recruited during their appointment for medication refilling. A sample of 355 was calculated using a single population proportion formula assuming 50% proportion of ME | 340 patients (1389 drugs) | Mean age: 50.5 years (SD 15.6), Female: 171 (50.3%), Mean comorbidities per patient: 1.9 (SD 0.9), New York Heart Association (NYHA) classes III: 165 (48.5%) | PE Types of PE Contributory factors | Study focused on heart failure only Beta-blockers: 34.4% Angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs): 24.8% Dyslipidemia drugs: 16.5% |
Ojeh V et al. [63] | Nigeria, outpatient HIV clinic at a teaching hospital | 8 months | Prospective descriptive study | All HIV infected adults that presented at the pharmacy with prescription for routine ART pick up or initiation during the study duration | 9339 patients [42, 416 prescriptions] | Mean age: 41 years (SD 10), Female: 6,817 (73%) | PE Types of PE Intervention Contributory factors | Study focused on antiretroviral drugs only |
Rouhani M et al. [64] | Iran, outpatient cancer centers | 6 months | Prospective, cross-sectional interventional study | All standard forms were collected, and ME and possible side effects were evaluated | 84 patients (217 cycles, 385 drugs) | Breast cancer patients. Mean age: 46.17 years (SD 9.5). Female: 81 (96.4%) | Overall ME ME according to the use process Types of PE Contributory factors | NR |
Shaikh A et al. [65] | Pakistan, outpatient departments in hospitals and primary healthcare facilities | NR | Retrospective study | NR | 479 prescriptions | Missing diagnosis: 402 (84%) prescriptions | PE Types of PE Contributory factors | Study focused on NSAID only |
Shrestha R et al. [66] | Nepal, outpatient departments at a hospital | 2 months | Retrospective, cross-sectional, and quantitative study | The sample was selected using stratified (according to department) random sampling by dividing the sample number based on the prescription number of each department | 770 prescriptions, 2448 drugs | Mean drugs/prescription: 3.2 | PE Types of PE Severity Contributory factors | NR |
Characteristics of included studies
Risk of bias
Author | Active failures and types | Latent conditions and types |
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Abramson E et al [43] | Mistake: prescribing errors Violation: inappropriate use of abbreviations | Lack of e-prescribing |
Abramson E et al [44] | Mistake: wrong medication components Violation: inappropriate use of abbreviations | Performance deficit (wrong patient direction) |
Bell S et al. [45] | NR | Misunderstanding and miscommunication |
Bicket M et al. [46] | Violation: inappropriate use of abbreviations, incomplete prescriptions | Inadequate training/knowledge (physicians make less errors as compared to trainee and nurses) Lack of e-prescribing |
Dempsey J et al. [47] | Mistake: prescribing errors | Inadequate training/knowledge Fragmentation of care |
Howard M et al.[48] | NR | Inadequate training/knowledge (specially for specific population: female, elderly, altered kidney function) |
Prasad D et al.[49] | Slips: dispensing errors (wrong quantity) Lapses: omission of diagnosis | Inadequate training/knowledge (specially for specific population: female) Heavy workload and lack of time Interruption and distraction in the environment Absence of quality assurance into academic education |
Priya K et al. [50] | Mistake: allergic reaction | NR |
Shakuntala B et al. [51] | NR | NR |
Thakur H et al. [52] | NR | NR |
Al-Khani S et al. [53] | Slips: look alike or sound alike, selecting the incorrect medication | Performance deficit (duplicate therapy) |
Assiri G et al. [54] | NR | Inadequate training/knowledge (specially for specific population: elderly, polypharmacy, male) |
Carollo J et al.[55] | Slips: dispensing errors (wrong medication) Lapses: omission of medication components Violation: inappropriate use of abbreviations | Lack of documentation (duplicate dose administered) Performance deficit Lack of e-prescribing Unstandardized prescription process |
Duarte et al. [56] | Mistake: prescribing errors Slips: incorrect patient Violation: incomplete prescriptions | NR |
Al Khawaldeh T et al. [57] | NR | Inadequate training/knowledge Performance deficit (not checking prescription and stability, lack of double checking) Heavy workload and lack of time Shortage of staff Lack of resources (protective equipment) |
Belaiche S et al. [58] | NR | Inadequate training/knowledge (specially for specific population: multiple comorbidities and polypharmacy) Fragmentation of care Heavy workload and lack of time |
Hernández S et al. [59] | Slip: dispensing errors | Inadequate training/knowledge |
Kim G et al. [60] | Mistake: wrong dose | Inadequate training/knowledge |
Lee P et al. [61] | NR | Inadequate training/knowledge (specially for immunosuppressant which have narrow therapeutic window) Performance deficit (duplicate therapy) |
Niriayo Y et al.[62] | NR | Inadequate training/knowledge (specially for specific population: female, elderly, multiple concomitant comorbidities and polypharmacy, new guidelines and evidence) Performance deficit (duplicate therapy) Lack of patient involvement in decision making |
Ojeh V et al. [63] | Mistake: allergic reaction Slips: incorrect patient | Inadequate training/knowledge (specific to HIV due to the changes in guidelines and complex nature of HIV) Performance deficit (duplicate therapy) Unstandardized prescription process |
Rouhani M et al. [64] | Violation: noncompliance to protocol (standard form) | Inadequate training/knowledge (standard form and calculations) |
Shaikh A et al. [65] | Violation: inappropriate use of abbreviations, incomplete prescriptions | Inadequate training/knowledge Lack of e-prescribing |
Shrestha R et al. [66] | Mistake: prescribing errors Violation: incomplete prescriptions, carelessness, prescribing by brand name | Inadequate training/knowledge Performance deficit Lack of guidelines |