Summary of findings
In general, a study noted that the use of antihypertensive drugs was associated with a similar and slightly elevated risk of PCa (HR = 1.16, 95% CI = 1.11–1.22) and metastatic PCa (HR = 1.36, 95% CI = 1.14–1.62) [
10]. Another study also observed a similar association for PCa risk across the studied antihypertensive medicines (OR 1.16; 95% CI, 1.12–1.21) [
24]. Studies by Kemppainen et al., and Fitzpatrick et al., reported absence of associated difference in risk of PCa and advanced PCa with the use of any specific class of antihypertensive medicine (OR 1.08, 95% CI 0.98–1.18) and (HR: 0.7, 95% CI: 0.5–0.9), respectively [
24,
27], although Fitzpatrick et al. also reported an inverse association between PCa and use of CCBs [
27]. Meanwhile, the study by Fitzpatrick et al. was limited by a smaller sample size, but presented information on the cohort’s drug use and blood pressure levels [
27], while Kemppainen et al. had a case-control design, a large sample size and a long duration of follow-up [
24]. Two matched case-control studies with large sample sizes and long follow-ups also reported no clear or associated risk between long-term use of antihypertensive medicines and PCa [
3,
36]. Meanwhile, the use of antihypertensive medicines was associated with elevated risk of PCa specific death in two population-based cohort studies [
25,
26] and risk of initiation of androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) [
26]. It is important to note that the users of antihypertensive drugs may likely have other comorbidities and are at increased risk of death in general as compared to non-users, which may possibly influence the reported PCa-specific mortality. Also, data for reimbursement for drug purchase was extracted for the study by Silltari et al., with no clear information on the actual use of the drugs, posing a limitation to the study [
26]. In contrast, lower risk [26] and inverse association between risk of PCa and antihypertensive medicine use [
24] were observed by other studies. Confounders such as behavioural and other health status with potential shared risks with PCa may have influenced findings in some studies, as lack of data availability prevented relevant statistical adjustments of these risks in the studies. Risk quantifications and other study characteristics are shown in Table
1.
Among 9 studies that reported the relationship between PCa risk or prognosis, with the use of CCBs, 4 associated the use of CCBs with increased risk of PCa [
24,
28,
37,
38]. Among these, studies with large sample sizes and longer follow-ups reported slightly elevated risk of PCa with the use of CCBs (OR 1.16; 95% CI, 1.12–1.21) and 1.14 (95% CI: 0.95–1.36), respectively [
24,
38]. The reported case-control study by Kemppainen et al., had a 24,657 cohort and a 7-year follow-up duration [
24]. Similarly, the study by Kao et al., was a population nested case-control study of a large cohort comprising 23,666 participants and a 5-year follow-up duration [
38]. Meanwhile, studies that had smaller sample sizes and shorter follow-up reported significant PCa risk association with the use of CCBs OR: 95% CI: 0.55 (0.31–0.97) and (OR 1.10, 95% CI: 1.02–1.18), respectively [
28,
37], and the risk increased with duration of use (association for PCa increased by 27% for every 10-year increment of CCB use (OR 1.27, 95% CI 1.04–1.56).) [
37]. In these studies, Debes et al., and Rotshild et al., observed a small cohort of 1,362 in a 2-year follow-up duration, and 4,346 in a 5.3 years follow-up duration, respectively [
28,
37], It is pertinent to note that these studies were limited by several factors. Most importantly, they did not account for possible confounders such as environmental exposures, dietary and other lifestyle-related risk factors. Also, one study did not have a large sample size but had a long follow-up duration [
37]. Four other studies associated use of CCBs with reduced risk, reduced aggressiveness or no associated PCa risk [(1–5 year vs. non-users HR = 0.99, 95% CI = 0.32–3.05; >5 year vs. non-user HR = 0.88, 95% CI = 0.34–2.26), (HR: 0.7, 95% CI: 0.5–0.9), (Gleason scores ≥ 7: adjusted OR = 0.64; 95% CI: 0.44–0.950 and 0.98 (CI, 0.88–1.08)], respectively [
3,
27,
32,
39]. The study that observed CCB-associated reduced PCa aggressiveness had a case-control, but had a smaller sample size of 1,747 and a 3-year follow-up [
32]. On the contrary, study by Poch et al. reported that CCBs were not associated with the outcomes of PCa, including PCa aggressiveness at diagnosis, progression-free survival or overall survival (median range PSA for non-CCB users; 5.44 (0.23–90), CCB users: 5 (1.50–29).
p = 0.97; aggressiveness: Gleason sum (
p = 0.61), Tumor T stage (
p = 0.88), Tumor aggressiveness (
p = 0.88).), but did not report on the risks of PCa with the use of CCBs [
30]. This study was limited by a smaller sample size (875) and a shorter duration of follow-up (2 years). Similarly, one study observed that exposure to CCBs was associated with lower relative risks for increased Gleason scores and T2F positive PCa (Gleason scores ≥ 7: adjusted OR = 0.64; 95% CI: 0.44–0.95) [
32]. Perron et al., also found that use of CCBs was not associated with PCa risks (0.98 (CI, 0.88–1.08)) [
39]. Although the sample size was large (13,326) and there was control for detection bias, several confounders such as dietary exposures were not accounted for. See Table
1 for risk quantifications and other study characteristics.
Out of 9 studies that reported on ACEIs and risks of PCa, 7 associated ACEIs with improved prognosis, reduced or no associated risk with PCa [
3,
27,
29,
34‐
36,
39]. Conversely, Silatri et al. and Kemppainen et al. reported an associated slightly elevated risk of PCa with use of ACEIs (HR = 1.10, 95% CI = 1.01–1.19 for PCa; OR 1.16; 95% CI, 1.12–1.21), respectively [
10,
24]. Although these studies [
10,
24] had long follow-up durations (20 years and 7 years, respectively) and large sample sizes (80,456 and 24,657, respectively), they did not account for the impact of relevant potential confounders on the relationship between ACEIs use and the risk of PCa. During their study of a 48,389 cohort for an 8-year period, Rodriguez et al., observed that the use of ACEIs were associated with lower PCa risk than other antihypertensive drugs when adjusted for age and race (OR = 0.10) [
29]. More specifically, lower risk for PCa was associated with the use of captopril (RR = 0.7 (95% CI: 0.4–1.2)) in a nested case-control study of 243,331 cohort within a 4-year follow-up period [
36]. Fitzpatrick et al., also observed an inverse association between exposure to ACEIs and PCa risks (HR: 0.7, 95% CI: 0.5–0.9) in a smaller sample sized (2,442) cohort study, with possible influence of confounders [
27]. The cohort had a long follow-up of 7 years. In contrast, the study by Perron et al. reported absence of association between PCa risk and use of ACEIs (0.98 (CI, 0.88–1.08) in a cohort of 13,326, but as earlier noted, had a smaller sample size however, its inclusion of a control for relevant confounders with a long duration of follow-up enhanced the strength of the study [
39]. Similarly, no association was observed between ACEIs and the risk of developing PCa in a matched case-control study of a 402,215 cohort by Pai et al., (1–5 year vs. non-users HR = 0.99, 95% CI = 0.32–3.05; >5 year vs. non-user sHR = 0.88, 95% CI = 0.34–2.26.) [
3]. The study which also had a large sample size and a long follow-up period of 9 years matched cases with control for potential confounders. Findings by Friis et al., also suggest the absence of association between use of ACEIs and the risks of PCa incidence (HR: 1.01 (95% CI, 0.93–1.09; comparable to non-users) [
34]. The study had a large sample size of 17,897 and a mean follow-up duration of 3.7 years, but did not include a case-control. Meanwhile, WIlk et al., observed a positive association between PCa and ACEI use [
35]. In their cohort of 93 participants, the researchers reported improved PCa prognosis in the use of ACEIs observed as a longer time to treatment failure (TTF) (HR, 0.61; 95% CI 0.4–0.94;
p = 0.02.). The small sample size and absence of controls were major draw backs of this study. Risks quantification is shown in Table
1.
Eight studies reported associations between ARBs and PCa risks and prognosis, among which 6 observed improved prognosis or no associated risk with PCa [
3,
25‐
27,
31,
35], while two studies reported associations between ARBs and elevated PCa risk [
24,
33]. Among the studies that observed an elevated risk of PCa with ARBs, one study reported a weak association with elevated PCa risk (1.10, 1.00 to 1.20,
p = 0.04) [
33]. The observed evidence of an increase in the risk of PCa among users of ARBs was reported to be small in absolute terms and the observed risk was not associated with the duration of ARB use (
p > 0.15) and as such, may have resulted from other risk factors for PCa [
33]. The major limitations of this study were the absence of study control with increased risk of confounder bias however, it had a long follow-up period of 4.6 years and studied a large sample comprising a cohort of 20,203. Specifically, angiotensin system inhibitors were linked to improved prognosis of PCa in persons with castration-resistant cancer on abiraterone in a small sized cohort study of 93 participants, where relevant confounders were not controlled [
35]. The observed statistical significance remained after adjustment for known oncological factors (HR, 0.57; 95% CI, 0.34–0.98;
p = 0.04). Median TTF of 12.2 months versus 5.8 months in men who did not receive ASI.) [
35].Similarly, in their study of a cohort comprising 14,422 participants, Santala et al., observed that angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockers were associated with improved survival (HR: 0.43, 95% CI: 0.26–0.72 and HR: 0.60, 95% CI 0.37–0.97 for pre- and post-diagnostic use) and lowered risk of commencing androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) (HR: 0.81 CI:0.71–0.92), but findings were limited by lack of a relevant control [
25]. ARBs were also associated with anti-cancer effects and improved PCa prognosis (0.81 (0.67–0.99) in a population-based cohort study of 8,253, and a median follow–up duration of 7.6 years [
26]. Likewise, ARBs were also observed to be minimally but significantly associated with a reduction in incidence of clinically detected PCa, but not associated with degree of differentiation (HR = 0.91;
P = 0.049) in another study [
31]. This study had a very large sample size of 543,824 participants but was limited by the non-inclusion of a control and non-adjustment for potential confounders. Risk quantification of the included studies is shown in Table
1.
Table 1
Characteristics of selected studies
Silatri et al., 2018 [ 10] Finland | Retrospective (population-based cohort) | Sample size: 80,456 Follow-up: 20 years | Antihypertensive medications, specifically ACEIs were associated with slightly increased PCa risk | Small excess increased risk HR = 1.10, 95% CI = 1.01–1.19 for PCa | 12 |
Siltari et al., 2020 [ 26] Finland | Retrospective (population-based cohort) | Sample size: 8,253 Follow-up: 7.6 years (medians) | Antihypertensive drug use overall was associated with an increased risk of PCa specific death. However, anticancer effects and improved prognosis of PCa was observed for renin-angiotensin type 1 receptor blockers | (Pre-PCa: 1.21 (1.04–1.4), Post-PCa: 1.2 (1.02–1.41)) 0.81 (0.67–0.99) | 11 |
Finland | Retrospective cohort | Sample size: 14,422 | Only ARBs were associated with improved survival and reduced risk of initiating androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) after radical prostatectomy. Increased risk of initiating ADT was reported for other antihypertensive medicines | Decreased risk of PCa death (HR: 0.43, 95% CI: 0.26–0.72 and HR: 0.60, 95% CI 0.37–0.97 for pre- and post-diagnostic use). Reduced risk of commencing ADT (HR: 0.81 CI:0.71–0.92). | 12 |
Bhaskaran et al., 2012 [ 33] Uk | Retrospective cohort | Sample size: 20,203 Follow-up: 4.6 years | There was some evidence of slightly increased risk of PCa in ARB users, but lack of association with duration of treatment meant that non-causal explanations could not be excluded. | From 1.10, 1.00 to 1.20, p = 0.04; which in absolute terms corresponded to an estimated 1.1 extra cases, per 1000 person years of follow-up among those with the highest baseline risk. No association with duration: P > 0.15. | 13 |
Wilk et al., 2021 [ 35] Poland | Retrospective (cohort) | Sample size: 93 | Renin angiotensin system inhibitors linked to improved PCa outcomes | Longer time to treatment failure (TTF): HR, 0.61; 95% CI 0.4–0.94; p = 0.02. Statistical significance remained after adjustment for well-known oncological factors (HR, 0.57; 95% CI, 0.34–0.98; p = 0.04). Median TTF of 12.2 months versus 5.8 months in men who did not receive ASI. | 13 |
Rotshild et al., 2019 [ 37] Israel | Retrospective (Nested case-control study | Sample size: 4,346 Follow-up: 5.3 years | CCBs was significantly associated with elevated risk of PCa, and the risk increased with duration of use. | Increase in risk for PCa (OR 1.10, 95% CI: 1.02–1.18). Association for PCa increased by 27% for every 10-year increment of CCB use (OR 1.27, 95% CI 1.04–1.56). | 10 |
USA | Retrospective (population-based case-control) | Sample size: 1,747 (control = 1,635) Follow-up: 3 years | CCBs was relatively associated with lower risks for higher Gleason score and T2F positive PCa | Gleason scores ≥ 7: adjusted OR = 0.64; 95% CI: 0.44–0.95. | 10 |
Ronquist et al. 2004 [ 36] Sweden | Retrospective (nested case-control) | Sample size: 243,331 (cases: 1,013) Follow-up: 4 years | Lower risk of PCa associated with the use of captopril | Relative risk of 0.7 (95% CI: 0.4–1.2) | 11 |
Fitzpatrick et al. 2001 [ 27] USA | Retrospective (cohort) | Sample size: 2,442 Follow-up: 7 years | Inverse association between PCa and use of antihypertensive medicines (ACEIs, ARBs and CCBs). There was also no difference between use of the specific classes of antihypertensive medication and associated PCa risk. | HR: 0.7, 95% CI: 0.5–0.9 | 13 |
USA | Prospective (cohort) | Sample size: 1,362 Follow-up: 2 years | Daily use of CCBs was associated with risk of PCa, and it varied by family history of PCa. | The risk (OR: 95% CI: 0.55 (0.31–0.97), stratified by family history, the risk was 0.45 (0.23–0.88) in men without a family history and 2.64 (0.82–8.47) in men with a family history (P = 0.006). | 11 |
Canada | Retrospective (matched case-control) | Sample size: 13,326 | PCa was not associated with the use of CCBs and ACEIs. | 0.98 (CI, 0.88–1.08) | 11 |
Kemppainen et al. 2011 [ 24] Finland | Retrospective (case-control) | Sample size: 24,657 Follow-up: 7years | ARBs, ACEIs and CCBs were associated with similar and marginally elevated risks of PCa | Marginally elevated risk (OR 1.16; 95% CI, 1.12–1.21). Risk of advanced prostate cancer did not differ from the nonusers (OR 1.08, 95% CI 0.98–1.18) | 10 |
USA | Retrospective (cohort) | Sample size: 875 Follow-up: 2 years | CCBs were not associated with PSA values at diagnosis and PCa aggressiveness | Median range PSA: Non-CCB users; 5.44 (0.23–90), CCB users: 5 (1.50–29). P = 0.97 Aggressiveness: Gleason sum (p = 0.61), Tumor T stage (p = 0.88), Tumor aggressiveness (p = 0.88). | 12 |
China | Retrospective (population-based case-control) | Sample size: 23,666 Follow-up: 5 years | PCa risk was slightly associated with CCBs use. | 1.14 (95% CI: 0.95–1.36). | 10 |
Taiwan | Retrospective (matched case-control cohort) | Sample size: 402,215 Follow-up: 9 years | Long-term use of antihypertensive medicines was not associated with risk of developing PCa. | 1–5 year vs. non-users HR = 0.99, 95% CI = 0.32–3.05; >5 year vs. non-user sHR = 0.88, 95% CI = 0.34–2.26. | 11 |
USA | Retrospective (cohort) | Sample size: 543,824 | ARBs did not increase the risk of incident PCa. There was small but significantly associated reduction in the incidence of PCa, in the use of ARBs. ARBs were not associated with degree of PCa differentiation. | Post weighting, the rates of PrCA in treated (ARBs) and not-treated groups were 506 (1.5%) and 8,269 (1.6%), respectively; representing a hazard ratio of 0.91, P = 0.049. | 11 |
Denmark | Retrospective cohort | Sample size: 17,897 Follow-up: 3.7 years (mean) | ACEIs was not associated with protective effects against incidence of cancer | HR: 1.01 (95% CI, 0.93–1.09) comparable to non-users | 12 |
Rodriguez et al. 2009 [ 29] USA | Retrospective cohort | Sample size: 48,389 Follow-up: 8 years | ACEI was associated with an approximately 10% lower risk for all PCa in models adjusted for age and race. However, strong associations with risk of all PCa were lost after adjustment for history of heart disease. | | 13 |