Background
Methods
Sample and design
Measures
Familial social capital
Socioeconomic factor
Demographic factors (DFs)
Data analysis
Results
Valid N | (%) | Mean (SD) (Range) | |
---|---|---|---|
Variables | |||
Personal Characteristics | |||
Age | 16.25 (±1.492) (13-18 years) | ||
Age cohort | |||
Young adolescent | 600 | (29.01) | |
Older adolescent | 1468 | (70.99) | |
Gender | |||
Male | 988 | (47.8) | |
Female | 1080 | (52.2) | |
Educational level | |||
Secondary | 1394 | (67.4) | |
Basic | 674 | (32.6) | |
Family structure | |||
Both parents | 1262 | (61.0) | |
Other | 10 | (0.5) | |
Stepparents | 108 | (5.2) | |
Family relatives | 271 | (13.1) | |
Single parent | 417 | (20.2) | |
Ethnicity | |||
Waala | 266 | (12.9) | |
Dagaaba | 1252 | (60.5) | |
Sissala | 96 | (4.6) | |
Northern tribe | 188 | (9.0) | |
Other | 118 | (5.7) | |
Brifour | 148 | (7.2) | |
Marital status | |||
Married | 65 | (3.1) | |
Other | 15 | (0.7) | |
Separated / broke-up | 18 | (0.9) | |
Cohabiting | 65 | (3.1) | |
Never married | 1905 | (92.1) | |
Religion | |||
Christian | 1501 | (72.6) | |
Muslim | 548 | (26.5) | |
Traditionalist | 19 | (0.9) | |
Material affluence | |||
Low | 853 | (41.2) | |
Medium | 667 | (32.3) | |
High | 548 | (26.5) | |
Family sense of belonging | |||
Low | 563 | 27.2 | |
Medium | 764 | 36.9 | |
High | 582 | 28.1 | |
Missing | 159 | 7.7 | |
Family autonomy support | |||
Low | 385 | 18.6 | |
Medium | 687 | 33.2 | |
High | 407 | 19.7 | |
Missing | 589 | 28.5 | |
Family control | |||
Low | 438 | 21.2 | |
Medium | 833 | 40.3 | |
High | 459 | 22.2 | |
Missing | 338 | 16.3 |
Variables | Level of Family Sense of belonging N = 1909 | χ2 | Level of Family autonomy support N = 1479 | χ2 | Level of Family control N = 1730 | χ2 | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low | Medium | High | Low | Medium | High | Low | Medium | High | |||||||||||||
Gender, | N | (%) | N | (%) | N | (%) | N | (%) | N | (%) | N | (%) | N | (%) | N | (%) | N | (%) | |||
Male | 235 | (25.5) | 377 | (40.9) | 310 | (33.6) | 15.779*** | 170 | (23.3) | 329 | (45.1) | 230 | (31.6) | 13.090** | 223 | (27.1) | 420 | (51.0) | 180 | (21.9) | 17.521*** |
Female | 328 | (33.2) | 387 | (39.2) | 272 | (27.6) | 215 | (28.7) | 358 | (47.7) | 177 | (23.6) | 215 | (23.7) | 413 | (45.5) | 279 | (30.8) | |||
Total | 563 | (29.5) | 764 | (40.0) | 582 | (30.5) | 385 | (26.0) | 687 | (46.5) | 407 | (27.5) | 438 | (25.3) | 833 | (48.2) | 459 | (26.5) | |||
Age cohort | |||||||||||||||||||||
Young adolescent | 167 | (31.0) | 235 | (43.6) | 137 | (25.4) | 9.301* | 96 | (25.7) | 177 | (47.5) | 100 | (26.8) | 0.216 | 95 | (20.2) | 214 | (45.4) | 162 | (34.4) | 22.848*** |
Older adolescent | 396 | (28.9) | 529 | (38.6) | 445 | (32.5) | 289 | (26.1) | 510 | (46.1) | 307 | (27.8) | 343 | (27.2) | 619 | (49.2) | 297 | (23.6) | |||
Total | 563 | (29.5) | 764 | (40.0) | 582 | (30.5) | 385 | (26.0) | 687 | (46.5) | 407 | (27.5) | 438 | (25.3) | 833 | (48.2) | 459 | (26.5) | |||
Educational level | |||||||||||||||||||||
Secondary | 329 | (25.2) | 510 | (39.1) | 464 | (35.6) | 61.180*** | 286 | (26.1) | 500 | (45.7) | 309 | (28.2) | 1.329 | 334 | (27.3) | 597 | (48.9) | 291 | (23.8) | 18.688*** |
Basic | 234 | (38.6) | 254 | (41.9) | 118 | (19.5) | 99 | (25.8) | 187 | (48.7) | 98 | (25.5) | 104 | (20.5) | 236 | (46.5) | 168 | (33.1) | |||
Total | 563 | (29.5) | 764 | (40.0) | 582 | (30.5) | 385 | (26.0) | 687 | (46.5) | 407 | (27.5) | 438 | (25.3) | 833 | (48.2) | 459 | (26.5) | |||
Family structure | |||||||||||||||||||||
Both parents | 292 | (25.2) | 483 | (41.7) | 382 | (33.0) | 31.825*** | 218 | (24.6) | 416 | (47.0) | 252 | (28.4) | 7.500 | 278 | (26.2) | 510 | (48.0) | 275 | (25.9) | 19.680* |
Other | 3 | (30.0) | 5 | (50.0) | 2 | (20.0) | 3 | (37.5) | 5 | (62.5) | 0 | (0.0) | 2 | (20.0) | 5 | (50.0) | 3 | (30.0) | |||
Stepparent | 45 | (43.3) | 33 | (31.7) | 26 | (25.0) | 20 | (25.3) | 40 | (50.6) | 19 | (24.1) | 12 | (13.2) | 39 | (42.9) | 40 | (44.0) | |||
Family relatives | 84 | (33.6) | 103 | (41.2) | 63 | (25.2) | 57 | (31.0) | 77 | (41.8) | 50 | (27.2) | 55 | (25.2) | 115 | (52.8) | 48 | (22.0) | |||
Single parent | 139 | (35.8) | 140 | (36.1) | 109 | (28.1) | 87 | (27.0) | 149 | (46.3) | 86 | (26.7) | 91 | (26.1) | 164 | (47.1) | 93 | (26.7) | |||
Total | 563 | (29.5) | 764 | (40.0) | 582 | (30.5) | 385 | (26.0) | 687 | (46.5) | 407 | (27.5) | 438 | (25.3) | 833 | (48.2) | 459 | (26.5) | |||
Religion | |||||||||||||||||||||
Christian | 405 | (29.1) | 562 | (40.4) | 425 | (30.5) | 8.811 | 267 | (24.3) | 523 | (47.6) | 309 | (28.1) | 9.580* | 308 | (24.6) | 609 | (48.7) | 333 | (26.6) | 8.163 |
Traditionalist | 11 | (61.1) | 4 | (22.2) | 3 | (16.7) | 7 | (50.0) | 5 | (35.7) | 2 | (14.3) | 0 | (0.0) | 9 | (56.3) | 7 | (43.8) | |||
Muslim | 147 | (29.5) | 198 | (39.7) | 154 | (30.9) | 111 | (30.3) | 159 | (43.4) | 96 | (26.2) | 130 | (28.0) | 215 | (46.3) | 119 | (25.6) | |||
Total | 563 | (29.5) | 764 | (40.0) | 582 | (30.5) | 385 | (26.0) | 687 | (46.5) | 407 | (27.5) | 438 | (25.3) | 833 | (48.2) | 459 | (26.5) | |||
Marital status | |||||||||||||||||||||
Married | 22 | (37.9) | 24 | (41.4) | 12 | (20.7) | 12.469 | 7 | (14.3) | 26 | (53.1) | 16 | (32.7) | 11.985 | 14 | (25.9) | 24 | (44.4) | 16 | (29.6) | 1.914 |
Other | 3 | (23.1) | 3 | (23.1) | 7 | (53.8) | 6 | (50.0) | 3 | (25.0) | 3 | (25.0) | 2 | (25.0) | 4 | (50.0) | 2 | (25.0) | |||
Separated/ broke-up | 6 | (37.5) | 7 | (43.8) | 3 | (18.8) | 6 | (46.2) | 5 | (38.5) | 2 | (15.4) | 2 | (14.3) | 7 | (50.0) | 5 | (35.7) | |||
Cohabiting | 13 | (20.0) | 25 | (38.5) | 27 | (41.5) | 13 | (24.1) | 22 | (40.7) | 19 | (35.2) | 14 | (26.4) | 27 | (50.9) | 12 | (22.6) | |||
Never married | 519 | (29.5) | 705 | (40.1) | 533 | (30.3) | 353 | (26.1) | 631 | (46.7) | 367 | (27.2) | 406 | (25.4) | 771 | (48.2) | 424 | (26.5) | |||
Total | 563 | (29.5) | 764 | (40.0) | 582 | (30.5) | 385 | (26.0) | 687 | (46.5) | 407 | (27.5) | 438 | (25.3) | 833 | (48.2) | 459 | (26.5) | |||
Ethnicity | |||||||||||||||||||||
Waala | 57 | (23.8) | 102 | (42.5) | 81 | (33.8) | 16.896 | 36 | (22.4) | 88 | (54.7) | 37 | (23.0) | 16.738 | 65 | (30.8) | 109 | (51.7) | 37 | (17.5) | 28.466** |
Dagaaba | 338 | (29.2) | 464 | (40.1) | 354 | (30.6) | 231 | (25.4) | 416 | (45.7) | 264 | (29.0) | 251 | (23.9) | 505 | (48.0) | 296 | (28.1) | |||
Sissala | 33 | (37.1) | 29 | (32.6) | 27 | (30.3) | 25 | (33.8) | 34 | (45.9) | 15 | (20.3) | 19 | (23.2) | 33 | (40.2) | 30 | (36.6) | |||
Northern tribe | 53 | (31.0) | 66 | (38.6) | 52 | (30.4) | 35 | (27.3) | 60 | (46.9) | 33 | (25.8) | 44 | (28.6) | 71 | (46.1) | 39 | (25.3) | |||
Other | 28 | (25.2) | 44 | (39.6) | 39 | (35.1) | 21 | (21.4) | 42 | (42.9) | 35 | (35.7) | 39 | (35.5) | 50 | (45.5) | 21 | (19.1) | |||
Brifour | 54 | (38.0) | 59 | (41.5) | 29 | (20.4) | 37 | (34.6) | 47 | (43.9) | 23 | (21.5) | 20 | (16.5) | 65 | (53.7) | 36 | (29.8) | |||
Total | 563 | (29.5) | 764 | (40.0) | 582 | (30.5) | 385 | (26.0) | 687 | (46.5) | 407 | (27.5) | 438 | (25.3) | 833 | (48.2) | 459 | (26.5) | |||
Material affluence | |||||||||||||||||||||
Low | 267 | (34.4) | 312 | (40.2) | 198 | (25.5) | 56.223*** | 183 | (29.6) | 295 | (47.7) | 140 | (22.7) | 36.103*** | 154 | (21.6) | 342 | (47.9) | 218 | (30.5) | 17.150** |
Medium | 202 | (32.9) | 238 | (38.8) | 174 | (28.3) | 121 | (26.8) | 220 | (48.8) | 110 | (24.4) | 145 | (26.6) | 259 | (47.5) | 141 | (25.9) | |||
High | 94 | (18.1) | 214 | (41.3) | 210 | (40.5) | 81 | (19.8) | 172 | (42.0) | 157 | (38.3) | 139 | (29.5) | 232 | (49.3) | 100 | (21.2) | |||
Total | 563 | (29.5) | 764 | (40.0) | 582 | (30.5) | 385 | (26.0) | 687 | (46.5) | 407 | (27.5) | 438 | (25.3) | 833 | (48.2) | 459 | (26.5) |
Models 1a | Model 2b | Model 3c | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Medium FSB | High FSB | Medium FAS | High FAS | Medium FC | High FC | |||||||
OR | 95%C.I | OR | 95%C.I | OR | 95%C.I | OR | 95%C.I | OR | 95%C.I | OR | 95%C.I | |
Independent variables | ||||||||||||
Gender (ref: female) | ||||||||||||
Male | 1.349 | (1.074–1.694)* | 1.549 | (1.210–1.983)** | 1.166 | (0.899–1.513) | 1.705 | (1.272–2.284)*** | 0.962 | (0.760–1.218) | 0.624 | (0.474–0.822)** |
Age cohort (ref: older adolescents) | ||||||||||||
Young adolescents | 1.571 | (1.151–2.144)** | 1.662 | (1.168–2.367)** | 1.078 | (0.735–1.581) | 1.106 | (0.717–1.708) | 1.160 | (0.821–1.639) | 1.596 | (1.089–2.338)* |
Educational level (ref: basic) | ||||||||||||
Secondary | 1.712 | (1.259–2.329)** | 3.323 | (2.322–4.757)*** | 0.823 | (0.555–1.220) | 0.886 | (0.566–1.388) | 1.010 | (0.714–1.430) | 0.820 | (0.556–1.211) |
Family structure (ref: single parent) | ||||||||||||
Both parents | 1.514 | (1.139–2.012)** | 1.549 | (1.137–2.110)** | 1.023 | (0.741–1.413) | 0.972 | (0.675–1.399) | 1.059 | (0.783–1.431) | 1.077 | (0.763–1.521) |
Stepparents | 0.712 | (0.419–1.211) | 0.919 | (0.514–1.641) | 0.897 | (0.479–.1.680)* | 0.762 | (0.369–1.574) | 1.706 | (0.840–3.464) | 2.783 | (1.339–5.784)* |
Family relatives | 1.164 | (0.792–1.709) | 0.996 | (0.644–1.540) | 0.687 | (0.439–1.074) | 0.708 | (0.427–1.174) | 1.188 | (0.781–1.806) | 0.857 | (0.519–1.415) |
Religion (ref: Muslim) | ||||||||||||
Christianity | 1.134 | (0.821–1.564) | 1.209 | (0.849–1.723) | 1.961 | (1.348–2.854)*** | 1.447 | (0.961–2.178) | 1.076 | (0.768–1.507) | 0.849 | (0.581–1.240) |
Marital status (ref: never married) | ||||||||||||
Married | 0.739 | (0.401–1.361) | 0.395 | (0.184–0.848)* | 2.300 | (0.927–5.708) | 2.260 | (0.861–5.932) | 0.875 | (0.443–1.728) | 1.173 | (0.551–2.499) |
Other | 0.398 | (0.65–2.435) | 1.896 | (0.468–7.681) | 0.256 | (0.62–1.062) | 0.385 | (0.090–1.651) | 0.788 | (0.129–4.807) | 0.863 | (0.116–6.419) |
Separated / broke-up | 0.968 | (0.298–3.145) | 0.559 | (0.125–2.498) | 0.395 | (0.102–1.521) | 0.324 | (0.060–1.735) | 1.811 | (0.372–8.817) | 2.031 | (0.360–11.461) |
Cohabiting | 1.149 | (0.576–2.295) | 1.422 | (0.708–2.853) | 0.916 | (0.451–1.861) | 1.243 | (0.593–2.606) | 1.094 | (0.563–2.127) | 1.087 | (0.484–2.439) |
Ethnicity (ref: Brifour) | ||||||||||||
Waala | 1.431 | (0.807–2.539) | 1.920 | (0.986–3.738)* | 3.476 | (1.755–6.885)*** | 1.816 | (0.817–4.040) | 0.632 | (0.327–1.222) | 0.382 | (0.177–0.823)* |
Dagaaba | 1.079 | (0.711–1.639) | 1.461 | (0.874–2.441) | 1.492 | (0.916–2.430) | 1.751 | (0.983–3.118) | 0.691 | (0.404–1.181) | 0.826 | (0.455–1.500) |
Sissala | 0.669 | (0.336–1.331) | 0.901 | (0.417–1.944) | 1.808 | (0847–3.857) | 1.200 | (0.482–2.990) | 0.646 | (0.288–1.446) | 1.206 | (0.507–2.865) |
Northern tribes | 0.937 | (0.541–1.622) | 1.235 | (0.651–2.344) | 1.704 | (0.896–3.241) | 1.641 | (0.775–3.471) | 0.552 | (0.290–1.053) | 0.606 | (0.291–1.260) |
Other | 1.051 | (0.548–2.016) | 1.300 | (0.627–2.698) | 1.883 | (0.908–3.908) | 2.500 | (1.118–5.593) | 0.502 | (0.253–0.997)* | 0.451 | (0.199–1.021) |
Socioeconomic status (ref: high) | ||||||||||||
Low | 0.549 | (0.405–0.743)*** | 0.373 | (0.271–0.513)*** | 0.775 | (0.554–1.085) | 0.387 | (0.270–0.556)*** | 1.262 | (0.942–1.692) | 1.673 | (1.187–2.359)** |
Medium | 0.546 | (0.398–0.748)*** | 0.442 | (0.318–0.615)*** | 0.866 | (0.607–1.237) | 0.472 | (0.322–0.693)*** | 1.024 | (0.759–1.382) | 1.190 | (0.831–1.704) |
N | 1881 | 1457 | 1704 | |||||||||
Model fitting information | ||||||||||||
2Log-likelihood | − 1714.550 | − 1400.445 | − 1588.281 | |||||||||
Nagelkerke Pseudo-R2 | 0.099 | 0.072 | 0.061 |