Background
CVD and individual-level risk factors
CVD and obesogenic environments
Current study: identifying pathways linking obesogenic environments and CVD
Methods
Data
Measures
Environmental obesogenicity (Key independent variable)
Presence or absence of CVD (Dependent variable)
Health-compromising behaviors (Behavioral mediator)
Indicators and cutoff points |
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Smoking status (1 = current smoker, 0.5 = ever smoked, 0 = never smoked) |
Drinking |
1 = excessive drinking (> 1 drink per day for women or > 2 drinks per day for men) |
0 = moderate or no drinking (≤ 1 drink per day for women or ≤ 2 drinks per day for men) |
Physical activity |
1 = physical inactive (engage in moderate, or vigorous activities more than once a week) |
0 = physical active (engage in moderate, or vigorous activities once a week or fewer) |
Diet |
1 = unhealthy diet (violate two or more recommended limits listed below) |
0 = healthy diet (violate fewer than two recommended limits listed below) |
Daily nutrition intake recommended by USDA dietary guideline (2015): |
added sugar < 10% total daily calories |
sodium < 2300 mg per day |
saturated fat < 10% total daily calories |
cholesterol < 300 mg per day |
fiber ≥ 28 g per day for men or ≥ 22.4 g per day for women |
Multi-system physiological dysregulation (Physiological Mediator)
Indicator | Physiological system | Clinical cut-point |
---|---|---|
Systolic blood pressure (SBP) | Cardiovascular system | ≥ 140 mmHg |
Diastolic blood pressure (DBP) | Cardiovascular system | ≥ 90 mmHg |
Heart rate | Cardiovascular system | ≥ 90 beats/min |
Hemoglobin A1c | Metabolism | ≥ 6.5% |
Total cholesterol (TC) | Metabolism | ≥ 240 mg/dl |
High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL) | Metabolism | < 40 mg/dl |
Body mass index (BMI) | Metabolism | ≥ 25 (overweight) or < 18.5 (underweight) |
C-reactive protein | Immune | ≥ 3.0 mg/dl |
Variables | Mean ± SD (min – max) or percent (%) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Full sample | Low-obeogenicity | Moderate-obesogenicity | High-obesogenicity | |
N | 12,482 | 4245 | 4121 | 4116 |
Age (years) | 65.9 ± 9.8 (51 – 102) | 65.5 ± 9.9 (51 – 99) | 65.9 ± 9.8 (51 – 15) | 66.2 ± 9.6 (51 – 102) |
Sex | ||||
Male | 41.0% | 42.6% | 42.0% | 38.2% |
Female | 59.0% | 57.4% | 58.0% | 61.8% |
Race and ethnicity | ||||
Non-Hispanic White | 63.7% | 73.8% | 65.6% | 51.5% |
Non-Hispanic Black | 19.3% | 11.7% | 17.5% | 29.0% |
Hispanic | 8.7% | 5.7% | 8.9% | 11.5% |
Other | 8.3% | 8.8% | 7.9% | 8.0% |
Highest degree of education | ||||
No degree | 17.2% | 12.9% | 14.7% | 24.0% |
High school diploma or GED | 52.6% | 51.2% | 54.0% | 52.7% |
College degree | 20.0% | 23.3% | 20.3% | 16.4% |
Graduate degree | 10.1% | 12.5% | 11.0% | 6.9% |
Environmental obesogenicity | 49.0 ± 9.5 (22.3 – 82.1) | 39.3 ± 4.4 (22.3 – 44.6) | 48.4 ± 2.3 (44.7 – 52.3) | 59.7 ± 6.3 (52.4 – 82.1) |
Self-reported cardiovascular disease | ||||
Presence | 73.0% | 75.2% | 72.5% | 71.2% |
Absence | 27.0% | 24.8% | 27.5% | 28.8% |
Health-compromising behaviors | 1.2 ± 0.9 (0 – 4) | 1.1 ± 0.9 (0 – 4) | 1.1 ± 0.9 (0 – 4) | 1.2 ± 0.9 (0 – 4) |
Physiological dysregulation | 1.9 ± 1.2 (0 – 7) | 1.8 ± 1.2 (0 – 6) | 1.9 ± 1.2 (0 – 7) | 2.1 ± 1.3 (0 – 7) |
Covariates
Statistical analysis
Results
Path | Coefficienta | Boot LLCI | Boot ULCI |
---|---|---|---|
Total effects of X on Y | 0.0765 | 0.0328 | 0.1202 |
Direct effects of X on Y | 0.0715 | 0.0278 | 0.1153 |
Indirect effects of X on Y | 0.0052 | 0.0026 | 0.0085 |
through M1 | 0.0025 | 0.0007 | 0.0052 |
through M2 | 0.0025 | 0.0009 | 0.0050 |
serially through M1 and M2 | 0.0001 | 0.0000 | 0.0002 |
Effects through mediators | |||
X → M1 | 0.0259 | 0.0075 | 0.0444 |
X → M2 | 0.0352 | 0.0167 | 0.0537 |
M1 → Y | 0.0980 | 0.0561 | 0.1399 |
M2 → Y | 0.0719 | 0.0302 | 0.1136 |
M1 → M2 | 0.0564 | 0.0388 | 0.0740 |
Variable | Odds Ratio | 95% Confidence Interval |
---|---|---|
Environmental obesogencity* | 1.074 | 1.028 – 1.122 |
Health-compromising behaviors* | 1.103 | 1.058 – 1.150 |
Physiological dysregulation* | 1.075 | 1.031 – 1.120 |
Age (in years) * | 1.663 | 1.593 – 1.735 |
Femalea | 0.731 | 0.673 – 0.795 |
Race/ethnicityb | ||
Non-Hispanic Black | 0.908 | 0.807 – 1.023 |
Hispanic | 0.712 | 0.597 – 0.848 |
Other | 0.807 | 0.678 – 0.960 |
Degreec | ||
High school diploma or GED | 1.006 | 0.894 – 1.132 |
College degree | 0.861 | 0.744 – 0.996 |
Graduate degree | 0.889 | 0.746 – 1.059 |
County-level degree*d | 1.080 | 1.029 – 1.134 |
County-level Population density* | 1.022 | 0.974 – 1.072 |