Introduction
The current policy context in the Northern Territory
The purpose of this historical overview
Methods
Search strategy
Order of search | Electronic database | Range of disciplines | Search terms | No. of records returned | No. of records retained |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | PubMed | Medicine, nursing, toxicology, nutrition, life sciences, and more | (alcohol[Title/Abstract]) AND (policy[Title/Abstract] OR intervention[Title/Abstract] OR program[Title/Abstract])) AND (“Northern Territory”[Title/Abstract] OR “central Australia”[Title/Abstract] OR “Top End”[Title/Abstract]) | 43 | 16 (26 did not meet inclusion criteria; 1 duplicate) |
2 | PsycINFO | Psychology and related disciplines (e.g., medicine, neuroscience, and nursing) | AB alcohol AND AB (policy OR intervention OR program) AND AB “northern territory” OR AB “top end” OR AB “central Australia” | 139 | 4 (124 did not meet inclusion criteria; 11 duplicates) |
3 | Scopus | Chemical and biological sciences, medical and health sciences, physical sciences, psychology, law, economics, human society, education and policy | ABS (alcohol) AND ABS (policy OR program OR intervention) AND ABS (“Northern Territory”) OR ABS (“Top End”) OR ABS (“Central Australia”) | 66 | 4 (53 did not meet inclusion criteria; 11 duplicates) |
4 | SAGE Journals | 450 journal titles in business, humanities, social sciences and science, technology and medicine | [Abstract alcohol] AND [Abstract policy] AND [Abstract “northern territory”] | 8 | 1 (3 did not meet inclusion criteria; 4 duplicates) |
5 | NT DoH Publications Collection | A digital repository for managing and storing publications produced by NT DoH | Alcohol | 250 | 9; one record included 2 reports totalling 10 documents (236 did not meet inclusion criteria; 5 duplicates) |
Eligibility criteria
Results
Groups | No. of articles reporting | % articles reporting | |
---|---|---|---|
Total number of documents | 75 | 100% | |
Year of publication | 1979–1990 | 9 | 12% |
1991–2000 | 17 | 23% | |
2001–2010 | 19 | 25% | |
2011 - May 2021 | 30 | 40% | |
Type of publication | Evaluation report | 25 | 33% |
Primary research article (including those derived from evaluation reports) | 20 | 27% | |
Academic commentary | 14 | 19% | |
Government report | 9 | 12% | |
Other (i.e. conference presentation, other reports, synthesise of evidence, editorial) | 7 | 9% |
Policy | Active years | Legislation | Location | Relevant publications and authors | Official evaluation | Babor’s area of alcohol policy |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
General Restricted Areas (including dry communities, remote community clubs and permit systems) | 12 February 1979 – present | Originally: Liquor Act 1978 (NT) Section 81 Present: Liquor Act 2019 (NT) Section 172–187 | In theory could be requested by any community In practise has only requested by Aboriginal communities | Inquiry: Sessional Committee on Use and Abuse of Alcohol by the Community [23] Jaburi club sale restrictions evaluation: d’Abbs & Togni [24] + related academic publication: d’Abbs [25] Groote Eylandt permit scheme evaluation: Conigrave et al. [26] NT-wide evaluations of clubs: Shaw et al. [27] Gove Penisula permit scheme evaluation: d’Abbs et al. [28] NT-wide permit schemes evaluation report: d’Abbs & Crundall [29] +related academic publication: d’Abbs & Crundall [18] | Yes | 2. Regulating physical availability |
Change to NT wide takeaway alcohol outlet trading hours | July 1982 – unknown | Liquor (Amendment) Regulations 1982 No. 4 (NT) | NT wide | Evaluation: Drug and Alcohol Bureau [37] | Yes | 2. Regulating physical availability |
Public Drinking Legislation (2 km Law) (now included under Prohibited Public Places) | 1982 – present | Originally: Summary Offences Act (NT) Section 45D Shifted to Liquor Act 1978 (NT) Part VIIIB in 2012 Present: Liquor Act 2019 (NT) Section 171 | NT wide | +related academic publication: O’Connor [40] | Yes | 3. Modifying the drinking environment |
Regulating strip shows in public bars | 1989 | Liquor Amendment Act 1989 (NT) | NT-wide | Academic publication: Boffa et al. [42] | No | 3. Modifying the drinking environment |
Living with Alcohol Program | 1 April 1992 – Dec 2002 Excise tax ceased 5 August 1997 | Originally: Amendments of the Liquor Regulations 1992 (NT) Impacted by: High Court of Australia combined decision in the cases of Walter Hammond and Associates v the State of NSW and others and Ha and anor v the State of NSW and others | NT wide | Coin-operated breathalysers evaluation: Crundall [47] Cask Wine Levy evaluation (academic publication): Gray et al. [48] Commentaries: d’Abbs [49], d’Abbs [50]; Holder [51] (1 x response to Holder; Chikritzhs, Stockwell & Pascal [52]) Discussed in: Barazani [30] | Yes | 1. Pricing and taxation 2. Regulating physical availability 6. Education and persuasion 7. Treatment and early intervention |
Elliott Restrictions | 1993 – unknown | Originally: Liquor Act 1978 (NT) Section 33 Now: Liquor Act 2019 (NT) Section 113–115 | Elliott | Evaluation: Bennett et al. [53] Academic publication: Walley & Trindall [54] | Yes | 2. Regulating physical availability |
Lowing BAC | Dec 1994 - present | Traffic Amendment Act 1994 (NT) | NT-wide | No | 4. Drink-driving prevention and countermeasures | |
Racial Discrimination Act and ‘Special Measures’ | 1996 – present | Racial Discrimination Act 1975 (Cwt) Section 8(1) | Only applicable to Aboriginal communities | Evaluation (relevant to NT): d’Abbs et al. [55] | Yes | 2. Regulating physical availability |
Tennant Creek trial restrictions Ongoing restrictions Liquor Supply Plan / Alcohol Management Plan Emergency Restrictions | Aug 1995 – Feb 1996 20th April 1996 July 2006 – revised 1 August 2008 (Alcohol Management Plan added)- unknown 28 Feb 2018 - present | Originally: Liquor Act 1978 (NT) Section 33 Present: Liquor Act 2019 (NT) Section 113–115 | Tennant Creek | +related academic publication: Gray et al. [61] | Yes | 2. Regulating physical availability, 3. Modifying the drinking environment |
Katherine restricted takeaway trading hours Liquor Supply Plan / Alcohol Management Plan | March 1999 - unknown 21 Jan 2007 – revised 2013 – unknown | Originally: Liquor Act 1978 (NT) Section 33 Present: Liquor Act 2019 (NT) Section 113–115. | Katherine | Discussed in: National Drug Research Institute [36] | Yes | 2. Regulating physical availability |
Alice Springs trial restrictions Liquor Supply Plan / Alcohol Management Plan | 1 April 2002–31 March 2003 7 Sept 2006 – present with modifications | Originally: Liquor Act 1978 (NT) Section 33 Present: Liquor Act 2019 (NT) Section 113–115 | Alice Springs | Report: Symons et al. [71] Academic publication: Hogan et al. [72] Discussed in: Room [73] | Yes | 2. Regulating physical availability, 3. Modifying the drinking environment |
Alcohol Courts | 8 March 2006 - unknown | Originally: Alcohol Court Act 2006 | NT-wide | No | 7. Treatment and early intervention | |
Public Restricted Areas (now included under Prohibited Public Places) | September 2006 – present | Originally: Liquor Act 1978 (NT) Section 86A-86G Present: Liquor Act 2019 (NT) Section 171 | NT-wide | No | 3. Modifying the drinking environment | |
Substance Misuse and Referral for Treatment (SMART) Courts | 1 July 2011–1 July 2013 | Originally: Alcohol Reform (Substance Misuse and Referral for Treatment Court) Act 2011 (NT) Repealed by: Alcohol Mandatory Treatment Act 2013 (NT) | NT wide | Discussed in: Buckley [74] | No | 7. Treatment and early intervention |
Banned Drinker Register v1 | July 2011 – August 2012 (officially repealed 1 July 2013) | Originally: Alcohol Reform (Prevention of Alcohol-related Crime and Substance Misuse) Act 2011 Repealed by: Alcohol Mandatory Treatment Act 2013 (NT) | NT wide | No | 2. Regulating physical availability | |
Alcohol Mandatory Treatment | 1 July 2013 – August 2016 (officially repealed 1 Sept 2017) | Originally: Alcohol Mandatory Treatment Act 2013 (NT) Repealed: Alcohol Harm Reduction Act 2017 (NT) Section 46 | NT wide | Evaluation: PwC’s Indigenous Consulting [77] | Yes | 7. Treatment and early intervention |
Alcohol Protection Orders | Dec 2013–1 Sept 2017 | Originally: Alcohol Protection Orders Act 2013 (NT) Repealed: Alcohol Harm Reduction Act 2017 (NT) Section 46 | NT wide | No | 2. Regulating physical availability | |
Banned Drinker Register v2 | 2 Sept 2017 – present | Originally: Alcohol Harm Reduction Act 2017 (NT) Present: Liquor Act (NT) 2019, Section 128–131 and Alcohol Harm Reduction Act 2017 (NT) | NT wide | Yes | 2. Regulating physical availability; 4. Drink driving countermeasures, | |
Police Auxiliary Liquor Inspectors (PALIs) | Aug 2018 – present | Originally: Liquor Amendment (Point of Sale Intervention) Act 2018 (NT) Present: Liquor Act 2019 (NT) Section 249 | Katherine, Tennant Creek, Alice Springs | No | 2. Regulating physical availability | |
Minimum Unit Price | 1 Oct 2018 – present | Originally: Liquor Amendment (Minimum Pricing) Act 2018 (NT) Present: Liquor Act 2019 (NT) Section 121 | NT wide | Evaluation: Coomber et al. [85] + related academic publication: Taylor et al. [86] Report: Foundation for Alcohol Research and Education & People’s Alcohol Action Coalition [82] | Yes | 1. Pricing and taxation |
Pricing and taxation
Living with alcohol (LWA) program
Minimum unit price (MUP)
Regulating physical availability
Aboriginal community level
Town level
Individual level
Modifying the drinking environment
Two kilometre law
Regulating strip shows in public bars
Public restricted areas
Drink-driving prevention and countermeasures
Tightening drink driving regulation
Restrictions on marketing
Education and persuasion
Treatment and early intervention
Alcohol courts
Substance misuse and referral for treatment (SMART) courts
Alcohol mandatory treatment (AMT)
Discussion
Aboriginal people are more likely to be abstainers than non-Aboriginal people [102], but those who do drink experience greater harms. Indeed, the alcohol-attributable death rate for Aboriginal people in the NT is 9–10 times higher than the national rate, while the rate for non-Aboriginal people in the NT is twice the national rate [103]. It is essential to understand these harms through the lens of the Social Determinants of Health, which for Aboriginal people includes higher rates of both social disadvantage and marginalisation [104], as a result of ongoing colonisation and discrimination. Internationally, there is consistent evidence that people from lower socioeconomic group experience more alcohol-related harm, despite consuming less or the same as those in higher socioeconomic groups. This is called the alcohol harm paradox [105].“Furthermore, in contrast to a misperception held in some sections of the Australian public, this data, like previous studies from the NT, confirms that harmful alcohol use is not solely an Indigenous issue (pg. 7)”