Introduction
Asylum Seekers, Refugees and Mental Health
The Candidacy Framework: ‘Accessing’ vs. ‘Negotiating’ Care
Stages of candidacy | Description of stages | Examples |
---|---|---|
1. Identification of candidacy by the individual | Process through which individuals decide that they have a particular need and that assistance may be required | Individuals’ recognition of MH symptoms |
2. Navigation | Knowing how to make contact with appropriate services in relation to identified candidacy | Being allowed time off work for appointments |
3. Permeability of services | Ease with which people can use services. Includes the level of explicit and implicit gate-keeping within a service and the complexity of its referral systems; in addition, it refers to the ‘cultural alignment’ between users and services | Provision of translational services |
4. Appearing at services and asserting candidacy | The work that individuals must do to assert their candidacy in an interaction with a HC professional | The service user feels taken seriously’—‘acknowledged’ and/or ‘understood |
5. Adjudications by professional | Refers to the judgments and decisions made by professionals which allow or inhibit continued progression of candidacy | Being referred on to mental health services |
6. Offers of, and resistance to, specific services | Emphasizes that follow-up services may be appropriately or inappropriately offered and that these may or may not be acted upon by service-users | Refusal of offer of medication |
7. Operating conditions and local production of candidacy | Incorporates factors that influence decisions about subsequent service provision (i.e. the resources available for addressing candidacy) and the kinds of contingent relationships that develop between professionals and service-users over a number of encounters | Adapting the frequency of consultations to the individual’s needs |
Methods
Search Strategy
Screening and Selection
Assessing Study Quality and Data Extraction
Data Synthesis
Results
Study | Country study conducted | Participants | Recruitment | Type of migrant | Country of origin | Data collection | Qualitative analysis |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ahmed et al. (2008) [65] | Canada | 10 Participants Age 20–40 Gender: female | Purposive sampling | Refugees and asylum seekers | China (2), India (2), Pakistan (1), South America (3), Egypt (1), and Haiti (1) | Semi-structured interviews | Constant comparative method |
Ahmed et al. (2017) [35] | Canada | 12 Participants Age 20–37 | Purposive sampling | Refugees | Syria | Focus groups | Thematic content analysis |
Asgary & Segar (2011) [32] | United States of America | 35 Participants Age > 40 years Gender: 30 male, 5 female | Purposive sampling | Asylum seekers | Cameroon (4), Chad (4), Guinea (4), Pakistan (3), Bangladesh (2), Congo (2), Kosovo (2), Senegal (2), Sierra Leone (2), Egypt (1), Eritrea (1), Ghana (1), India (1), Ivory Coast (1), Lebanon (1), Mali (1), Mauritania (1), Nepal (1), and Russia (1) | 21 semi-structured interviews 5 focus groups | Comprehensive analysis, not specified further |
Behnia (2003) [31] | Canada | 36 Participants Age 20–49 Gender: not specified | Purposive sampling | Refugees | Bosnia, Cambodia, El Salvador, Iran, and Somalia (numbers not specified) | Semi-structured interviews | Not specified |
Campbell et al. (2014) [34] | Canada | 21 participants Average age 45.62 Gender: female | Purposive sampling | Refugees, Refugee claimants and undocumented migrants | Mexico (4), El Salvador (2), Colombia (3), Venezuela (4), Ecuador (2), Cuba (1), Dominican Republic (2), Costa Rica (2), South America (1) | Semi-structured interviews | Thematic content analysis |
Chase et al. (2017) [20] | Canada | 25 participants Average age 36.7, minimum and maximum not provided Gender: 11 males, 13 females, one not specified | Purposive sampling | Asylum seekers | Sub-Saharan Africa (10), North Africa (3), the Middle East (3), South Asia (2), Southeast Asia (1), the Caribbean (5), and South America (1), individual countries not specified | Semi-structured interviews | Thematic content analysis |
Djuretic et al. (2007) [66] | United Kingdom | 19 participants Age 20–69 years Gender: 7 male, 12 female | Purposive sampling | Refugees, asylum seekers | Croatia (3), Bosnia and Herzegovina (9), Serbia and Montenegro (4), Kosovo (1), Macedonia (1), Slovenia (1) | Focus groups | Thematic content analysis |
Donnelly et al. (2011) [67] | Canada | 10 participants Age >18 years Gender: all female | Purposive sampling | Refugees | China (5), Sudan (5) | In-depth individual interviews | Framework analysis |
Feldmann et al. (2007) [38] | The Netherlands | 36 participants Age 18–66 Gender: 15 males, 21 females | Purposive sampling and snowball sampling | Refugees | Afghanistan (36) | Semi-structured interviews | Comparative analysis |
Jensen et al. (2014) [39] | Denmark | 5 participants1 Age 26–50 years Gender: 3 males, 2 females | Purposive sampling | Refugees | Iran (1), Bosnia and Herzegovina (1), Iraq (2), Turkey (1) | Interviews | Thematic content analysis |
Kahn et al (2018) [68]a | Canada | 7 participants Age 22–40 | Purposive sampling | Forced migrants (legal status not specified) | Bahamas, Bangladesh, Iran, Lebanon, the Arabian Peninsula, and Ghana (numbers not specified). | In-depth interviews | Thematic content analysis |
Leavey et al. (2007) [36] | United Kingdom | 9 participants Age 19–41 years Gender: 8 males, 1 female | Purposive sampling | Refugees and asylum seekers | Turkey (8), Cyprus (1) | In-depth interviews | Narrative analysis |
Maier & Straub (2011) [69] | Switzerland | 13 participants Age 22–53 years Gender: 8 males, 5 females | Purposive sampling | Refugees and asylum seekers | Bosnia and Herzegovina (2), Kosovo (2),Turkey (Turkish) (1),Turkey (Kurdish) (1), Iran (Kurdish, (2), Afghanistan (2), Cameroon (1), Sudan (1), Chechnya (1) | Semi-structured interviews | Thematic content analysis |
O’Mahony et al. (2012) [70] | Canada | 30 participants Age not specified Gender: females | Not specified | Immigrant (not specified) and refugees | Not specified | In-depth critical ethnographic interviews and field notes | Critical ethnography |
Omar et al. (2017) [29] | Australia | 36 participants Age 18–60 Gender: males | Purposive sampling | Refugees | Somalia (17), Ethiopia (2), Djibouti (3), Eritrea (6), Saudi Arabia (5), Sudan (2), unknown (1) | Focus groups | Thematic content analysis |
Palmer (2007) [28] | United Kingdom | 10 participants Age >18 years Gender: 7 males, 3 females | Snowball sampling | Refugees | Ethiopia (10) | In-depth semi-structured interviews | Thematic content analysis |
Palmer & Ward (2007) [71] | United Kingdom | 21 participants Age 21–62 years Gender: 11 males, 10 females | Maximum variation sampling | Refugees and asylum seekers | Turkey (1), Bosnia and Herzegovina(1), Colombia (1), Democratic Republic of Congo (1), Ethiopia (3), Iran (3), Iraq (2), Kosovo (1), Russia (1), Rwanda (1), Somalia (5), Ukraine (1) | In-depth interviews | Thematic content analysis |
Pavlish et al. (2010) [72] | United States of America | 57 participants Age 18–80 Gender: females | Purposive sampling | Refugees | Somalia (57) | Focus groups | Inductive coding |
Piwowarczyk et al. (2014) [30] | United States of America | 48 participants Age 18–59 years Gender: all female | Convenience sample | Refugees and asylum seekers | Democratic Republic of Congo, Somalia (numbers not specified) | Focus groups | Grounded theory |
Shrestha-Ranjit et al. (2017) [73] | New Zealand | 40 participantsa Age 18–82 Gender: 8 males, 32 females | Not specified | Refugees | Bhutan (40) | Focus groups | Thematic content analysis |
Russo et al. (2015) [33] | Australia | 38 participants Age > 18 years Gender: all female | Purposive sampling | Refugees | Afghanistan (38) | In-depth interviews and focus groups | Thematic content analysis |
Teunissen et al. (2014) [27] | The Netherlands | 15 participants Age 21–73 years Gender: 9 males, 6 females | Purposive sampling | Undocumented migrants | Burundi (1), Dominican Republic (1), Egypt (1), Eritrea (1), Ghana (1), Morocco (1), Nepal (1), Nigeria (1), Philippines (2), Sierra Leone (1), Somalia (1), Surinam (1), Uganda (1), Zambia (1) | Interviews | Grounded theory |
Valibhoy et al. (2017) [37] | Australia | 16 participants Age 18–25 years Gender not specified | Purposive sampling | Refugees | Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan, Sudan, Democratic Republic of Congo, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Ivory Coast, Pakistan (Numbers not specified) | In-depth individual interviews | Thematic content analysis |
Article | Stage 1 | Stage 2 | Stage 3 | Stage 4 | Stage 5 | Stage 6 | Stage 7 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ahmed et al. (2008) [65] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
Ahmed et al. (2017) [35] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
Asgary and Segar (2011) [32] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Behnia (2003) [31] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
Campbell et al. (2014) [34] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Chase et al. (2017) [20] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
Djuretic et al. (2007) [66] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
Donnelly et al. (2011) [67] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |
Feldmann et al. (2007) [38] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
Jensen et al. (2014) [39] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Kahn et al. (2018) [68] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
Leavey et al. (2007) [36] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
Maier and Straub (2011) [69] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
O’Mahony et al. (2012) [70] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
Omar et al. (2017) [29] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
Palmer (2007) [28] | ✓ | ✓ | |||||
Palmer and Ward (2007) [71] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
Pavlish et al. (2010) [72] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
Piwowarczyk et al. (2014) [30] | ✓ | ✓ | |||||
Shrestha-Ranjit et al. (2017) [73] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | |||
Russo et al. (2015) [33] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||||
Teunissen et al. (2015) [27] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ||
Valibhoy et al. (2017) [37] | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ |
Identification of Candidacy
Identification of Symptoms as Medical
‘Traditionally it is believed that diseases can be caused because of cursing, and by evil spirit and germs. The remedies are medicinal plants, praying, healers and taking tablets.’ [28, p. 51]
‘For our old generation, if someone is sick we quickly invite Sheikh to read Quran on him and I don’t think that young people use Quran as a healing (…) as far as I know, some, their parents beg them to accept reading Quran on them…’ [29, p. 384]
Social Barriers
‘I don’t use mental health professional. In my culture going to a professional like a psychologist and psychiatrist is stigmatized. It is associated with mental health problem and craziness.’ [31, p. 12]
Navigation
Structural Barriers
“I just got this temporary job and my boss would not allow me to leave to see doctor” [32, p. 515]
Understanding a New System
‘Yeah but we didn’t knew that you can go to a GP with depression, we didn’t know that.’ [27, p. 8]
Fear of Unknown Consequences
“I also had the fear that if I talked to someone that people will come and take my daughter from me because I thought I was going crazy.” [33, p. 6]
Permeability of Services
‘If I get sick I pop pills and wait. And when I say pills I mean over the counter shit, not prescriptions. If it gets really bad then I have to decide if I think I will die. If I think I will, I go to Emergency. If I don’t then I wait in pain. Why do you ask me about family doctors? Walk-in-clinics? Are you kidding? I have no papers.’ [34, p. 171]
Appearances at Health Services
Linguistic Barriers
“If you speak with a psychiatrist, you would speak normally, but if there is an interpreter as a mediator, and this person might speak about what you said, and now like you have told your story to this and may be this mediator will tell everybody in Canada.” [35, p. 8]
Attitudes and Perceived Discrimination
‘For me, it’s moral torture…. Sometimes I pray God to give us good health, me and my children, because I know so well what I will face in clinics or in hospitals…. You feel worth less than others, as if you don’t have the same rights as the other person.’ [20, p. 55]
Cultural Competency of HC Provider
Adjudications by Professionals
“doctors at [A] they suggested [B]. I contacted [B] and then they couldn’t do help much. Then I was transferred to [C] and from there to [D] so it’s like a little tour.” [37, p. 29]
Offers and Resistance
‘Sometimes I see these pills… I mean I don’t think that these pills are good. They make me numb. Sometimes I decide to give up. I decide to skip taking them to see what would happen.’ [36, p. 263]
‘If a doctor says you need medication, and the pastor says no. You won’t take it’ [30, p. 212]
Operating Conditions and the Local Production of Candidacy
‘Sometimes they were asking very like personal questions that I didn’t like…The journey that we had, like how many days were you in the boat, and I never want to think about it… [later] People are different, like we have saying; ‘‘jungle has dry and wet—some trees are alive, some trees are dead, and they are different.’’ And people are the same; some people like to talk about their selves, their families, and some people want to keep a secret.‘[37, p. 32]
“he was not helpful or he was just not getting us… I felt he was being disrespectful… we were new to the country and… we had to travel by train then take a tram and sometimes we might be a bit late, but he wasn’t understanding one bit.” [37, p. 35]