Introduction
Aim of the current systematic literature review
Imagery models and frameworks in the education and psychology literature
Imagery models and frameworks in the sports literature
Motor imagery in medicine
Methods
Search terms and search strategy
Study identification
Number | Discipline | Database | Searched time period | References found, n |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Education | Academic Search Premier | 1975 to Feb 2007 | 1040 |
2 | Medicine | AMED | 1985 to Feb 2007 | 623 |
3 | Education | ASSIA | 1987 to March 2007 | 353 |
4 | AEI | 1979 to Feb 2007 | 84 | |
5 | BEI | 1975 to Feb 2007 | 18 | |
6 | Medicine | BNI | 1985 to Feb 2007 | 54 |
7 | CINAHL | 1982 to Feb 2007 | 1606 | |
8 | Cochrane Library | 1948/1995 to march 2007 | 363 | |
9 | Digital dissertations | 1930 to March 2007 | 30 | |
10 | DIMDI | 1967 to March 2007 | 130 | |
11 | Sports | EMAERALD | 1965 to March 2007 | 134 |
12 | Education | ERIC | 1966 to Feb 2007 | 795 |
13 | Medicine | GMS meetings | 2002 to March 2007 | 1 |
14 | ISI Proceedings | 1990 to March 2007 | 241 | |
15 | Music | JSTOR | 1665 (1800) to Feb 2007 | 200 |
16 | Psychology | PsycINFO | 1887 to Feb 2007 | 4588 |
17 | Music | RILM | 1967 to March 2007 | 180 |
18 | Medicine | Scopus | 1996 to Feb 2007 | 2550 |
19 | Sports | SPORTDiscus
| 1800 to Feb 2007 | 4023 |
20 | Sports | SPORLIT, SPOFOR, SPORMED | 1974 to Jan 2007 | 589 |
21 | Medicine | ClinicalTrials.gov | 1997 to March 2007 | 12 |
22 | ISRCTN | 1998 March 2007 | 2 | |
23 | National Research Register | 2000 to March 2007 | 16 | |
24 | Web of Science | 1970 to March 2007 | 2837 | |
25 | Zetoc | 1993 to March 2007 | 1270 | |
Total | 21,739 |
Study selection criteria
-
Any design of quantitative intervention studies with a focus on imagining movements.
-
Studies that included healthy volunteers, students, children, professionals, athletes or patients from any discipline.
-
Study intervention that focused on motor skill, performance or strength improvement.
-
Mental practice not related to movements (audition, odour, any kind of visual imagery with static pictures).
-
Mental practice based on a computer-animated technique (virtual reality).
-
Mental practice used during a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) session.
-
Mental practice carried out during hypnosis or psychotherapy (guided imagery, eidetic imagery).
-
Mental practice used as mental rotation or diagnostic tool.
-
Suggested frameworks without participant evidence or experience.
-
Publication language other than English or German.
Selection process
Data extraction
Number | MITS element | MITS element description and categories | PETTLEP category | Dominant category found in successful MIb interventions |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Position | Describes the position of the individual during MI practice as task-specific or not task-specific. | Physical | Task-specific |
2 | Location | Describes the location of MITS as task-specific or not task-specific. | Environment | Task-specific |
3 | Focus | Each task consists of different parts. Focus of the intervention classifies the main focus of task-related activities that had to be imagined: motor, cognitive or strength. | Task | Motor-focused activities |
4 | Order | Describes temporal order of MI and PPc trials. MI trials could have been performed before, between, after or simultaneously with PP. | Timing | MI after PP |
5 | Integration | Describes whether MI practice has been added to PP or embedded
d
into PP. | Added | |
6 | MI instructions medium | MI instructions can be provided differently through one or more media types. Media type was scored as acoustic, written or visual. More than one media type could be assigned. | Learning | Acoustic |
7 | Instruction mode | In addition to the instruction medium, the mode was classified as live or pre-recorded (for example, using tape or video). | Live | |
8 | Supervision | MITS could have been supervised or not supervised by an instructor present during the session. | Supervised | |
9 | Directedness | MITS could have been directed
d
or non-directed when stepwise guidance was present or not. | Non-directed | |
10 | Instruction type | The description of MI instructions varied. Instructions could cover detailed descriptions for each part of the task that had to be imagined, simple keywords, or coarse (broad) overall MI instructions. | Detailed | |
11 | Instruction individuali-sation | MI instructions could have been individualised to the participant's problems with the task that had to be imagined (tailored), or could have been the same for each participant (standardised). | Standardised | |
12 | Familiari-sation | Describe whether study participants had received an MI familiarisation session before the MI intervention began. | No familiarisation | |
13 | Change | Indicated whether modification of content, duration or dosage of the MI training occurred, to facilitate the learning process during the MI intervention period. | ||
14 | MI session | MITS could have been classified as group sessions with more than one person participating in a MITS or as individual sessions with one participant only. | Emotion | Individual |
15 | Eyes | During the MI, the participant's eyes could have been closed or open. In some interventions, participants started with one condition and changed to the other after one or several MITS. | Closed | |
16 | Perspective | During the MI, participants could have imagined the task from an internal or external perspective. In some interventions, participants started with one condition and changed to the other after one or several MITS. | Perspective | Internal |
17 | Mode | During the MI, participants could have used a kinaesthetic or visual mode. In some MI interventions, participants started with one condition and changed to the other during one or after several MITS. | Kinaesthetic |
Study quality rating
Data analysis
Results
Study characteristics
Reference | First author | Year | Countrya
| Language | Study duration, days | Intervention duration, days | Study design | Study groups | Number of participants | Participants | Gender | Age, years | Body part | Training task | Focus | Measurement events | Resultsb
| Quality rating | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Relative change | Absolute change | ||||||||||||||||||
[93] | Bucher, L | 1993 | USA | English | 999 | 999 | RCT | 3 | 108 | Nursing students | NSt | Range 19 to 21 | Upper limb | Remove sterile gloves | M | 1 (post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 5/10 |
[94] | Doheny, MO | 1993 | USA | English | 1 | 1 | RCT | 4 | 95 | Nursing students | Both | Mean = 21, range 18 to 40 | Upper limb | Intramuscular injection | M | 2 (pre-post test) | → | NSt | 5/10 |
[95] | Immenroth, M | 2005 | DE | English | 2 | 1 | RCT | 3 | 98 | Surgeons | NSt | Mean ± SD = 32 ± 4 | Upper limb | Laparoscopic cholecystectomy | M | 2 (pre-post test) | ↗ | ↗ | 9/10 |
[96] | Komesu | 2009 | USA | English | 999 | 1 | RCT | 2 | 68 | Surgeons | NSt | NSt | Upper limb | Surgical cystoscopy | C | 1 (post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 8/10 |
[97] | Sanders, CW | 2004 | USA | English | 21 | 21 | RCT | 3 | 65 | Medical students | NSt | Students | Upper limb | Basic surgical procedures | M | 2 (pre-post test) | → | ↘ | 7/10 |
[98] | Sanders | 2008 | USA | English | 15 | 2 | RCT | 2 | 64 | Medical students | NSt | NSt | Upper limb | Basic surgical procedures | C | 3 (post-tests, FU) | ↗ | ↗ | 9/10 |
[99] | Stig, LC | 1989 | UK | English | 1 | 1 | RCT | 2 | 35 | Chiropractic students | Both | Mean = 23, range 19 to 40 | Upper limb | Chiropractic adjustment skill | M | 2 (pre-post test) | → | ↗ | 6/10 |
[100] | Welk, A | 2007 | DE | English | 999 | 999 | RCT | 2 | 41 | Dentistry students | Both | Mean = 23 | Upper limb | Preparation of tooth crown | C | 2 (pre-post test) | ↗ | ↗ | 8/10 |
[60] | Wright, CJ | 2008 | UK | English | 999 | 28 | RCT | 2 | 56 | Students | Both | University Students | Upper limb | Measuring blood pressure, antiseptic dressing task | C | 2 (pre-post test) | ↗ | ↗ | 8/10 |
Reference | First author | Year | Country | Language | Study duration, days | Intervention duration, days | Study design | Study groups | Number of participants | Participants | Gender | Age, years | Body part | Training task | Focus | Measurement events | Results | Quality rating | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Relative change | Absolute change | ||||||||||||||||||
[84] | Bovend'Eerdt, TJH | 2009 | UK | E | 999 | 56 | RCT | 2 | 11 | Stroke, MS, TBI | Both | Mean ± SD = 50 ± 14 | Whole body | Muscle stretching | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | → | 7/10 |
[58] | Bovend'Eerdt, TJH | 2010 | UK | E | 126 | 35 | RCT | 2 | 30 | Stroke, TBI, MS | Both | Mean ± SD = 50 ± 14 | Lower limb | ADL tasks | M | 3 (pre-post-test, FU) | → | ↗ | 8/10 |
[101] | Cramer, SC | 2007 | USA | E | 9 | 7 | CS | N/A | 20 | SCI | NSt | Mean ± SD = 31 ± 4 | Tongue, foot | Tapping | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | N/A | ↗ | 9/11 |
[102] | Crosbie, J | 2004 | UK | E | 35 | 14 | SCRD | N/A | 10 | Stroke | Both | Range 45 to 81 | Upper limb | Reaching, grasping | M | 10 (BL, during int., FU) | N/A | ↗ | 10/11 |
[59] | Dickstein, R | 2004 | IL | E | 42 | 42 | SCRD | N/A | 1 | Stroke | Male | 69 | Lower limb | Walking | M | 5 (BL, midterm, post-test, FU) | N/A | ↗ | 9/11 |
[103] | Dijkerman, R | 2004 | UK | E | 28 | 28 | CCT | 3 | 20 | Stroke | Both | Mean ± SD = 64 ± 9 | Upper limb | Reaching, grasping | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 5/10 |
[104] | Dunsky, A | 2006 | IL | E | 77 | 42 | SCRD | N/A | 4 | Stroke | Male | Mean = 58, (64, 57, 63, 47) | Lower limb | Walking | M | 5 (BL, midterm, post-test, FU) | N/A | ↗ | 9/11 |
[105] | Dunsky, A | 2008 | IL | E | 77 | 21 | CS | N/A | 17 | Stroke | Both | Mean = 58 | Lower limb | Walking | M | 6 (BL, pre-test, during int., post-test, FU) | N/A | ↗ | 11/11 |
[38] | Guillot, A | 2009 | FR | E | 14 | 999 | RCT | 2 | 14 | hand burn | Both | Mean ± SD = 47 ± 14, range 27 to 74 | Upper limb | Wrist + finger movements | M | ≈ 6 (pre-test, during int., post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[106] | Gustin, SM | 2008 | AU | E | 15 | 7 | CS | N/A | 15 | SCI | Male | Mean = 47, range 26 to 67 | Lower limb | Plantarflexion, dorsiflexion | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | N/A | ↘ | 8/11 |
[107] | Hewett, T | 2007 | USA | E | 56 | 42 | SCRD | N/A | 5 | Stroke | Both | Mean = 53 ± 5, range 38 to 76 | Upper limb | Reaching, grasping | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | N/A | ↗ | 7/11 |
[108] | Jackson, PL | 2004 | CA | E | 35 | 21 | SCRD | N/A | 1 | Hemorrhage- related lesion | Male | 38 | Lower limb | Foot serial response time task | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | N/A | ↗ | 8/11 |
[109] | Liu, K | 2004 | HK | E | 21 | 21 | RCT | 2 | 46 | Stroke | Both | Mean = 72 | Whole body | ADL tasks | M | 3 (pre-post-test, FU) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[110] | Liu, K | 2004 | HK | E | 49 | 14 | SCRD | N/A | 2 | Stroke | Both | 65, 66 | Whole body | ADL tasks | M | 3 (pre-post-test, FU) | N/A | ↗ | 7/11 |
[111] | Liu, KPY | 2009 | HK | E | 999 | 2 | RCT | 2 | 33 | Stroke | Both | Mean = 70 ± 8 | Whole body | ADL tasks | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 8/10 |
[62] | Malouin, F | 2004 | CA | E | 2 | 1 | CS | N/A | 12 | Stroke | Both | Mean = 53 ± 12 | Lower limb | Symmetrical load standing up + sitting down | M | 3 (pre-post-test, FU) | N/A | ↗ | 9/11 |
[63] | Malouin, F | 2009 | CA | E | 42 | 21 | RCT | 3 | 12 | Stroke | Both | Mean = 61 ± 8, range 53 to 75 | Lower limb | Symmetrical load standing up + sitting down | M | 3 (pre-post-test, FU) | ↗ | ↗ | 8/10 |
[112] | McCarthy, M | 2002 | UK | E | 999 | 999 | SCRD | N/A | 2 | CVA, TBI | Male | 64, 36 | Neglect | M | 3 (pre-test, during int., post-test) | N/A | ↗ | 9/11 | |
[113] | Moseley, GL | 2004 | AU | E | 210 | 14 | RCT | 2 | 13 | CRPS1 after wrist fracture | Both | Mean ± SD = 37 ± 15 | Upper limb | Hand + finger movements | M | 5 (pre-test, during int., post-test, FU) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[114] | Moseley, GL | 2005 | AU | E | 126 | 14 | RCT | 3 | 20 | CRPS1 after wrist fracture | Both | Mean = 34 ± 8 | Upper limb | Hand + finger movements | M | 5 (pre-test, during int., post-test, FU) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[47] | Moseley, GL | 2006 | AU | E | 84 | 14 | RCT | 2 | 51 | Phantom limb, CRPS1 | Both | 37 | Upper limb | Hand + finger movements | M | 3 (pre-post-test, FU) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[86] | Moseley, GL | 2008 | Western Europe + AU | E | 1 | 1 | CCT | 2 | 37 | CRPS1, no-CRPS1 pain | Both | Mean ± SD = 41 ± 14 | Upper limb | Hand + finger movements | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↘ | 5/10 |
[115] | Mueller, K | 2007 | DE | E | 98 | 28 | RCT | 3 | 17 | Stroke | Both | Mean ± SD = 62 ± 10 | Upper limb | Finger+hand movements | M | 8 (BL, during int., post-test, FU) | → | ↗ | 6/10 |
[116] | Page, SJ | 2000 | USA | E | 28 | 28 | RCT | 2 | 16 | Stroke | Male | Mean = 63 | Upper limb | Weightbearing + functional task | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[65] | Page, SJ | 2001 | USA | E | 56 | 42 | SCRD | N/A | 1 | Stroke | Male | 56 | Upper limb | Whole arm movements | M | 3 (BL, post-test) | N/A | ↗ | 7/11 |
[64] | Page, SJ | 2001 | USA | E | 56 | 42 | RCT | 2 | 13 | Stroke | Both | Mean ± SD = 65, range 64 to 79 | Upper limb | Whole arm movements | M | 3 (BL, post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[117] | Page, SJ | 2005 | USA | E | 56 | 42 | RCT | 2 | 11 | Stroke | Both | Mean = 62 ± 5, range 53 to 71 | Upper limb | Hand ADL tasks | M | 3 (BL, post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 8/10 |
[118] | Page, SJ | 2007 | USA | E | 999 | 72 | CS | N/A | 4 | Stroke | Both | Mean = 63, range 49 to 73 | Upper limb | Hand ADL tasks | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | N/A | ↗ | 10/11 |
[119] | Page, SJ | 2007 | USA | E | 63 | 42 | RCT | 2 | 32 | Stroke | NSt | Mean ± SD = 60 ± 14 | Upper limb | Hand ADL tasks | M | 3 (BL, post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 8/10 |
[120] | Page, SJ | 2009 | USA | E | 91 | 70 | CS | N/A | 10 | Stroke | Both | Mean = 57 ± 12, range 37 to 69 | Upper limb | Whole arm ADL tasks | M | 3 (BL, post-test) | N/A | ↗ | 9/11 |
[121] | Page, SJ | 2009 | USA | E | 168 | 70 | RCT | 2 | 10 | Stroke | Both | Mean ± SD = 61 ± 3, range 48 to 79 | Upper limb | Whole arm ADL tasks | M | 4 (BL, post-test, FU) | ↗ | ↗ | 8/10 |
[122] | Riccio, I | 2010 | IT | E | 42 | 21 | RCT | 2 | 36 | Stroke | Both | Mean = 60 ± 12 | Upper limb | Whole arm ADL tasks | M | 3 (pre-test, first + second study part) | ↗ | ↗ | 8/10 |
[123] | Simmons, L | 2008 | UK | E | 999 | 10 | CS | CS | 10 | Stroke | Both | Mean = 68 ± 14 | Upper limb | Whole arm movements | M | 3 (pre-post-test, FU) | N/A | ↗ | 7/11 |
[66] | Stenekes, MW | 2009 | NL | E | 84 | 42 | RCT | 2 | 25 | Surgery for carpal tunnel syndrome | Both | Mean ± SD = 34 ± 11 | Upper limb | Passive bending + straightening wrist + fingers | M | 3 (pre-post-test, FU) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[124] | Stevens, JA | 2003 | USA | E | 128 | 28 | SCRD | N/A | 2 | Stroke | Both | 76; 63 | Upper limb | Wrist movements, object manipulation | M | 4 (pre-test, during int., post-test, FU) | N/A | ↗ | 7/11 |
[125] | Tamir, R | 2007 | IL | E | 84 | 84 | RCT | 2 | 23 | Parkinson disease | Both | Mean ± SD = 67 ± 10 | Whole body | ADL tasks | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[126] | Yoo, EY | 2006 | KR | E | 10 | 999 | SCRD | N/A | 3 | Stroke | Male | Mean = 57, (46, 70, 56) | Lower limb | Symmetrical weightbearing | M | 21 (BL, during int., post-test, FU) | N/A | ↗ | 9/11 |
Reference | First author | Year | Country | Language | Study duration, days | Intervention duration, days | Study design | Study groups | Number of participants | Participants | Gender | Age, years | Body part | Training task | Focus | Measurement events | Results | Study rating | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Relative change | Absolute change | ||||||||||||||||||
[127] | Coffman, DD | 1990 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | CCT | 8 | 2 | Musicians | Both | Mean = 23, range 18 to 58 | Upper limb | Piano-playing performance | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 5/10 |
[128] | Ross, SL | 1985 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 5 | 51 | Trombonists | Both | Mean = 22, range 18 to 29 | Upper limb | Trombone-playing performance | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[129] | Rubin-Rabson, G | 1941 | USA | E | 168 | 999 | CCT | 3 | 13 | Piano teachers | NSt | range 21 to 25 | Upper limb | Piano-playing performance, memorising new études | M | 3 (during int., post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 4/10 |
[130] | Sonnen-schein, I | 1990 | DE | G | 3 | 3 | CS | N/A | 20 | Piano players | Both | Mean = 33, range 14 to 51 | Upper limb | Piano-playing performance | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | N/A | ↗ | 4/11 |
[131] | Theiler, T | 1995 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | CCT | 4 | 14 | Music students: guitar majors, voice majors | NSt. | Range 19 to 29 | Upper limb | Guitar-playing + vocal performances | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 5/10 |
Reference | First author | Year | Country | Language | Study duration, days | Intervention duration, days | Study design | Study groups | Number of participants | Participants | Gender | Age, years | Body part | Training task | Focus | Measurement events | Results | Study rating | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Relative change | Absolute change | ||||||||||||||||||
[132] | Allami, N | 2008 | FR | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 5 | 25 | Students | NSt | Mean = 29, range 20 to 37 | Upper limb | Grasping task | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[133] | Alves, J | 1999 | PT | E | 28 | 28 | CCT | 4 | 64 | Pupils | Both | Range 15 to 17 | Whole body | Volleyball service | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 3/10 |
[134] | Andre, C | 1986 | USA | E | 5 | 5 | CCT | 3 | 66 | Students | Male | Mean = 21 ± 3 | Whole body | Frisbee disc gold putting/throwing | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 4/10 |
[135] | Chevalier, H | 1986 | CA/FR | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 5 | 30 | Students | Both | Undergraduate students | Upper limb | Moving computer mouse | C | 1 (post-test only) | ↗ | ↗ | 6/10 |
[136] | Clark, LV | 1960 | USA | E | 28 | 21 | CCT | 2 | 144 | Pupils | Male | High-school pupils | Whole body | Pacific coast one-hand foul shot | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 5/10 |
[137] | Clegg, BC | 2004 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | SCRD | N/A | 28 | Older adults, students | Both | Old: mean = 74, range 62 to 88; young: mean = 22, range 18 to 26 | Upper limb | Movement with stylus | M | 1 (post-test only) | N/A | → | 8/11 |
[138] | Corbin, CB | 1967 | USA | E | 28 | 21 | RCT | 3 | 30 | Pupils | Male | High-school pupils | Whole body | Wand-juggling skill | M | 2× BL, post-test, FU 1 day | ↘ | ↗ | 5/10 |
[139] | Cornwall, MW | 1991 | USA | E | 4 | 4 | RCT | 2 | 24 | Females | Female | Mean = 23, range 21 to 25 | Lower limb | Strength of quadriceps muscle | S | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 6/10 |
[140] | Decety, J | 1991 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 2 | 20 | Students | Both | Mean = 23 ± 2 | Lower limb | Walking on beam | M | 5 (during int., post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 6/10 |
[41] | Etnier, J | 1996 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 9 | 153 | Students | Both | Mean ± SD = 23 ± 4 | Whole body | Basketball shooting | M | 3 (pre-test, during int., post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 6/10 |
[141] | Gassner, K | 2007 | DE | G | 999 | 21 | RCT | 2 | 36 | Students | Both | Mean = 24 | Lower limb | Walking with knee prosthesis | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[142] | Gordon, S | 1994 | AU | E | 21 | 21 | RCT | 3 | 64 | High-school pupils | NSt | High-school pupils | Whole body | Cricket outswing | M | 6 (pre-test, during int., post-test) | → | ↗ | 6/10 |
[143] | Gray, SW | 1990 | USA | E | 21 | 14.0 | RCT | 2 | 24 | Males | Male | Mean = 22, range 18 to 26 | Whole body | Forehand and backhand racquetball skills | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 6/10 |
[144] | Hellwing, W | 1976 | DE | G | 14 | 14 | CCT | 2 | 72 | Pupils | Male | Mean = 12, range 11 to 13 | Whole body | Fosbury flop | M | 1 (post-test) | → | ↗ | 4/10 |
[145] | Hemayattalab, R | 2009 | IR | E | 38 | 24 | RCT | 5 | 40 | Mentally retarded children | NSt | Mean = 14, range 12 to 15 | Whole body | Basketball free throw | M | 3 (pre-post-test, FU) | ↗ | ↗ | 6/10 |
[146] | Herrero, J | 2004 | ES | E | 7 | 7 | CCT | 2 | 27 | Students | Female | Mean ± SD = 20 ± 0.1 | Upper limb | Bench-press | S | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 6/10 |
[56] | Isaac, AR | 1992 | NZ | E | 126 | 126 | CCT | 2 | 70 | Students | NSt | NSt | Whole body | Three trampoline skills | M | 6 (after 1, 6, 7, 12, 13, 18 weeks) | → | → | 6/10 |
[147] | Jaehme, W | 1978 | DE | G | 21 | 14 | RCT | 3 | 48 | Pupils | Male | Mean = 16 | Whole body | Crawl swimming | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 5/10 |
[42] | Jarus, T | 2000 | IL | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 2 | 89 | Children, adults | Both | Children: mean ± SD = 10 ± 1; adults: 28 ± 5; older adults: 67 ± 2 | Upper limb | Two-arm coordination task | C | 6 (during int., FU) | ↗ | ↗ | 6/10 |
[148] | Jones, JG | 1965 | AU | E | 14 | 14 | RCT | 2 | 71 | Students | Male | Students | Whole body | Hock-swing upstart | M | 2 (during int., post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[149] | Kelsey, IB | 1961 | CA | E | 22 | 2 | RCT | 3 | 36 | Students | Male | University students | Trunk, lower limb | Endurance abdominal + thigh-flexor muscles | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[150] | Kohl, RM | 1980 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 3 | 60 | Students | NSt | Mean = 21 | Upper limb | Pursuit rotor task | C | 28 (during int., post-test) | → | ↗ | 5/10 |
[150] | Kohl, RM | 1980 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 3 | 60 | Students | Male | Mean = 20 | Upper limb | Pursuit rotor task | C | 36 (during int., post-test) | → | ↗ | 5/10 |
[150] | Kohl, RM | 1980 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 6 | 108 | Pupils | Male | Mean = 17 | Upper limb | Pursuit rotor task | C | NSt | ↘ | ↗ | 5/10 |
[151] | Kornspan, AS | 2004 | USA | E | 5 | 4 | RCT | 4 | 40 | Students | Both | Mean = 20 | Whole body | Golf putting | M | 3 (pre-post-tes)t | → | ↗ | 6/10 |
[152] | Kremer, P | 2009 | AU | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 4 | 209 | Students | Both | Mean ± SD = 21 ± 3 | Whole body | Dart throwing with non-preferred hand | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 7/10 |
[153] | Krigolson, O | 2006 | CA | E | 1 | 1 | CCT | 6 | 42 | Healthy participants | NSt | Range 18 to 32 | Lower limb | Walking along walkway | M | 20 (during int., post-test) | → | ↗ | 4/10 |
[57] | Lejeune, M | 1994 | BE | E | 7 | 4 | CCT | 4 | 40 | University students + staff | Both | Mean = 22, range 19 to 27 | Whole body | Counterattack forehand and backhand (table tennis) | M | 3 (Pre-post-test, FU) | ↗ | ↗ | 5/10 |
[154] | Linden, CA | 1989 | USA | E | 14 | 8 | RCT | 2 | 23 | Healthy participants | Female | Mean = 79, range 67 to 90 | Whole body | Walking balance, equilibrium reactions | M | 3 (pre-test, during int., post-test) | → | → | 8/10 |
[45] | Lutz, R | 2001 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 5 | 120 | Students | Both | Undergraduate students | Whole body | Golf putting | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[155] | Maring, JR | 1990 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 2 | 26 | University students + staff | Both | Mean = 30; range 22 to 40 | Upper limb | Tossing a ping-pong ball to target | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 6/10 |
[67] | Martin, KA | 1995 | CA | E | 6 | 6 | RCT | 3 | 39 | Students | Both | Mean ± SD = 27 ± 6 | Whole body | Golf putting | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 6/10 |
[156] | McAleney, P | 1990 | USA | E | 999 | 21 | RCT | 2 | 20 | Students | Both | Mean = 19, range 18 to 20 | Whole body | Tennis shooting skills | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 7/10 |
[157] | Minas, SC | 1978 | UK | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 4 | 32 | Students | Both | Undergraduate students | Whole body | Throwing performance | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 6/10 |
[68] | O, J | 2008 | CA | E | 999 | 1 | RCT | 5 | 97 | Healthy students | Both | Mean ± SD = 18 ± 2 | Whole body | Dribbling a soccer ball | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[158] | Papaxanthis, PC | 2002 | FR | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 2 | 16 | Students | Both | Mean = 21, range 19 to 23 | Lower + upper limb | Walking + writing task | M | 5 (during int., post-test) | → | ↗ | 6/10 |
[159] | Phipps, SJ | 1969 | USA | E | 21 | 21 | RCT | 2 | 72 | Students | Male | University students | Whole body | Hock swing, jump-foot, soccer hitch kick | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 6/10 |
[160] | Ranganathan, VK | 2004 | USA | E | 231 | 84 | RCT | 4 | 30 | Healthy participants | Both | Mean ± SD = 30 ± 5 | Upper limb | Muscle strength of little finger abduction, elbow flexion | S | 18 (BL, during int., FU) | → | ↗ | 6/10 |
[35] | Rapp, G | 1973 | DE | G | 14 | 9 | RCT | 3 | 58 | Pre-school children | Both | Mean = 6 | Whole body | Skipping | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 7/10 |
[161] | Rawlings, E | 1972 | USA | E | 11 | 10 | RCT | 3 | 24 | Students | Female | Undergraduate students | Upper limb | Rotary pursuit tracking | C | 10 (pre-test, during int., post-test) | → | ↗ | 6/10 |
[161] | RawlingsE | 1972 | USA | E | 10 | 9 | RCT | 2 | 20 | Students | Male | Students | Upper limb | Rotary pursuit tracking | C | 10 (pre-test, during int., post-test) | → | ↗ | 5/10 |
[69] | Reiser, M | 2005 | DE | G | 28 | 28 | RCT | 3 | 34 | Students | Both | Mean ± SD = 24 ± 2, range 20 to 27 | Upper limb | Bench-press | S | 4 (pre-test, during int., post-test) | ↘ | ↗ | 6/10 |
[83] | Rodrigues, EC | 2010 | BR | E | 1 | 1 | CS | N/A | 18 | Students | Both | Mean = 26, range 19 to 33 | Lower limb | Plantar flexion | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 9/11 |
[162] | Ryan, E | 1981 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 3 | 39 | Students | Male | Undergraduate students | Upper limb + whole body | 'Dial-a-maze' pattern, stabilometer performance | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↘ | ↗ | 5/10 |
[163] | Ryan, E | 1982 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 6 | 80 | Traffic officers | Male | Mean = 36, range 23 to 57 | Whole body | Stabilometer performance | M | 4 (pre-test, during int., post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[164] | Shackell, EM | 2007 | CA | E | 21 | 10 | RCT | 3 | 30 | Students | Male | Mean ± SD = 20 ± 2 | Lower limb | Strength-training of hip flexor muscle | S | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[165] | Sidaway, B | 2005 | USA | E | 28 | 28 | RCT | 3 | 24 | Students | Both | Mean = 23, range 19 to 26 | Lower limb | Ankle dorsiflexor torque | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 7/10 |
[166] | Singer, RN | 1970 | USA | E | 35 | 28 | RCT | 5 | 65 | Students | Female | College students | Upper limb | Learning a pursuit rotor task | C | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 5/10 |
[167] | Smith, LE | 1962 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | CCT | 6 | 60 | Students | Male | Mean = 20, range 17 to 27 | Upper limb | Hand-eye coordination task; punchboard learning task | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 4/10 |
[72] | Smith, D | 2001 | UK | E | 21 | 21 | RCT | 2 | 27 | Students | Both | Mean ± SD = 20 ± 3 | Whole body | Landing hockey penalty | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[71] | Smith, D | 2004 | UK | E | 49 | 49 | RCT | 3 | 19 | University students + staff | Male | Mean ± SD = 30 ± 8 | Upper limb | Strength of abductor digiti minimi | S | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 7/10 |
[71] | Smith, D | 2004 | UK | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 4 | 24 | University students + staff | Both | Mean ± SD = 29 ± 8 | Upper limb | Barrier knock-down task | C | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 7/10 |
[168] | Smyth, MM | 1975 | UK | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 7 | 70 | Students | Both | Undergraduate and postgraduate students | Upper limb | Mirror drawing of a star | C | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↘ | ↗ | 5/10 |
[168] | Smyth, MM | 1975 | UK | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 7 | 71 | Students | Both | Undergraduate and postgraduate students | Upper limb | Pursuit rotor task | C | 1 (post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 5/10 |
[169] | Start, KB | 1960 | AU | E | 9 | 9 | CS | N/A | 35 | Pupils | Male | 12 | Whole body | Basketball throw | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | N/A | ↗ | 6/11 |
[170] | Start, KB | 1964 | AU | E | 7 | 6 | CS | N/A | 21 | Students | Male | Mean = 20, range 18 to 21 | Whole body | Single leg upstart on high-bar | M | 1 (post-test) | N/A | ↗ | 7/11 |
[87] | Start, KB | 1964 | AU | E | 7 | 6 | CS | N/A | 44 | Students | Male | Mean = 19, range 18 to 25 | Whole body | Single leg upstart on high-bar | M | 1 (post-test) | N/A | → | 7/11 |
[88] | Start, KB | 1964 | AU | E | 14 | 6 | CS | N/A | 32 | Students | Male | Mean = 20, range 18 to 21 | Whole body | Single leg upstart on high-bar | M | 1 (post-test) | N/A | → | 6/11 |
[171] | Stebbins, RJ | 1968 | USA | E | 42 | 21 | RCT | 5 | 93 | Students | Male | College students | Whole body | Throwing ball into target | M | 8-18 (pre-test, during int., post-test) | → | ↗ | 5/10 |
[172] | Surburg, PR | 1968 | USA | E | 63 | 56 | CCT | 7 | 183 | Students | Male | Junior college students | Whole body | Tennis forehand drive | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 5/10 |
[36] | Taktek, K | 2004 | CA | E | 1 | 1 | CCT | 4 | 64 | Children | Both | Mean = 9, range 8 to 10 | Upper limb | Pushing play vehicle | C | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 4/10 |
[73] | Toussaint, L | 2010 | FR | E | 3 | 2 | RCT | 8 | 80 | Students | Both | Mean ± SD = 23 ± 3 | Lower limb | Knee joint angles | M | 3 (pre-post-test, FU) | → | ↗ | 6/10 |
[173] | Tunney, N | 2006 | USA | E | 2 | 2 | RCT | 2 | 19 | Older adults | Both | Mean = 76, range 66 to 89 | Lower limb | Walking with quad cane + climbing four stairs | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 7/10 |
[174] | Twining, W | 1949 | USA | E | 22 | 20 | RCT | 3 | 36 | Students | Male | College students | Whole body | Throwing rings at target | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | -1 | ↗ | 4/10 |
[175] | van Gyn, GH | 1990 | CA | E | 42 | 42 | RCT | 4 | 40 | Students | Both | Undergraduate students | Lower limb | Power + sprint performance on ergometer | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 6/10 |
[176] | Vandell, RA | 1943 | USA | E | 20 | 18 | RCT | 3 | 36 | Pupils and college students | Male | Junior, senior high-school and college students | Whole body | Throwing darts at target, basketball free throws | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 5/10 |
[37] | Vergeer, I | 2006 | UK | E | 28 | 28 | RCT | 3 | 36 | University staff | Both | Mean ± SD = 41 ± 10 | Lower limb | Flexibility around hip joint | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 7/10 |
[74] | Wakefield, CJ | 2009 | UK | E | 999 | 28 | RCT | 4 | 32 | Students | Female | University students | Whole body | Netball shooting performance | C | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[75] | White, KD | 1979 | AU | E | 9 | 8 | CCT | 4 | 24 | High-school pupils + university students | NSt | Mean = 19, range 13 to 27 | Whole body | Action-reaction swimming start | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 4/10 |
[177] | Whiteley, G | 1966 | UK | E | 84 | 84 | CCT | 4 | 88 | Pupils | Male | Mean = 11 | Whole body | Neck spring, head spring, short-arm overswing | M | 1 (post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 3/10 |
[76] | Williams, JG | 2004 | UK | E | 21 | 21 | RCT | 3 | 24 | Undergraduate students | Both | Mean ± SD = 21 ± 2 | Lower limb | Rom hip flexion | M | 6 (pre-test, during int., post-test, FU) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[178] | Wohldamm, EL | 2007 | USA | E | 84 | 2 | CCT | 4 | 80 | Students | NSt | Undergraduate and postgraduate students | Upper limb | Number typing task | M | 2 (post-test) | → | ↗ | 4/10 |
[178] | Wohldamm, EL | 2007 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | CCT | 4 | 108 | Students | NSt | Undergraduate and postgraduate students | Upper limb | Number typing task | M | 3 (pre-test, FU) | → | ↗ | 5/10 |
[179] | Woolfolk, RL | 1985 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 6 | 48 | Students | Male | Undergraduate college students | Whole body | Putt golf balls into cup | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | → | ↗ | 7/10 |
[180] | Woolfolk, RL | 1985 | USA | E | 7 | 6 | RCT | 3 | 30 | Students | Both | College students | Whole body | Golf backswing and putting stroke | M | 2 (pre-post test) | ↗ | ↗ | 5/10 |
[77] | Wright, CJ | 2009 | UK | E | 999 | 42 | RCT | 5 | 50 | Students | NSt | Mean ± SD = 21 ± 4 | Upper limb | Biceps curl task | S | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[78] | Yaguez, L | 1998 | DE | E | 1 | 1 | CCT | 2 | 58 | Volunteers | Both | Mean ± SD = 35 ± 11, range 22 to 73 | Upper limb | Ideogram drawing | C | 3 (pre-test, during int., post-test) | → | ↗ | 6/10 |
[78] | Yaguez, L | 1998 | DE | G | 1 | 1 | CCT | 2 | 52 | Volunteers | Both | Mean = 30, range 22 to 49 | Upper limb | Connecting circles | C | 3 (pre-test, during int., post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 6/10 |
[181] | Zecker, SG | 1982 | USA | E | 1 | 1 | RCT | 4 | 40 | Students | Both | Undergraduate college students | Whole body | Tossing beanbag to target | M | 2 (pre-post-test) | ↗ | ↗ | 5/10 |
Reference | First author | Year | Country | Language | Study duration, days | Intervention duration, days | Study design | Study groups | Number of participants | Participants | Gender | Age, years | Body part | Training task | Focus | Measurement events | Results | Study rating | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Relative change | Absolute change | ||||||||||||||||||
[182] | Casby, A | 1998 | UK | E | 84 | 46 | SCRD | N/A | 4 | Expert swimmers | Both | Mean = 16, range 16 to 17 | Whole body | Freestyle swimming turn | M | 50 (pre-test, during int., post-test) | N/A | → | 8/11 |
[54] | Grouios, G | 1992 | GR | E | 14 | 7 | RCT | 5 | 100 | Top level athletes | Male | Mean = 22, range 18 to 25 | Upper limb | Pushing button | C | 2 (pre-post test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[183] | Guillot, A | 2009 | FR | E | 56 | 42 | CS | N/A | 10 | Basketball players | Female | Mean = 23 | Whole body | Three strategic basketball tactics | C | 2 (pre-post test) | N/A | ↗ | 8/11 |
[55] | Guillot, A | 2010 | FR | E | 999 | 35 | RCT | 2 | 21 | Synchronised swimmers | Female | Mean = 15, SD 2 | Whole body | Stretching exercises | M | 2 (pre-post test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[184] | Olsson, CJ | 2008 | SE | E | 999 | 42 | RCT | 2 | 19 | High-jump athletes | Both | Mean = 19 ± 3, range 16 to 29 | Whole body | High jump | M | 2 (pre-post test) | ↗ | ↗ | 6/10 |
[79] | Robin, N | 2007 | FR | E | 70 | 56 | CCT | 3 | 30 | Tennis players | NSt | Mean = 19 ± 3 | Whole body | Tennis service return | M | 2 (pre-post test) | → | ↗ | 6/10 |
[185] | Shambrook, CJ | 1996 | UK | E | 84 | 84 | SCRD | N/A | 4 | Basketball players | Female | Mean = 20, SD 2 | Whole body | Basketball free throw | M | 26 (pre-test, during int., post-test) | N/A | ↗ | 9/11 |
[80] | Smith, D | 2007 | UK | E | 999 | 42 | RCT | 4 | 48 | University hockey players | Both | Mean = 20 ± 3 | Whole body | Field hockey penalty flicks | C | 2 (pre-post test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[80] | Smith, D | 2007 | UK | E | 999 | 42 | RCT | 4 | 40 | Junior gymnasts | Female | Mean = 10 ± 2, range 7 to 14 | Whole body | Full turning straight jump | C | 2 (pre-post test) | → | ↗ | 8/10 |
[81] | Smith, D | 2008 | UK | E | 999 | 42 | RCT | 4 | 32 | Golf players | Male | NSt | Whole body | Hitting golf ball out of bunker | M | 2 (pre-post test) | ↗ | ↗ | 7/10 |
[186] | Ziemainz, H | 2003 | DE | G | 14 | 2 | RCT | 3 | 27 | Triathletes | Both | Mean = 16, range 15 to 17 | Whole body | Changing between triathlon-specific sports | M | 3 (pre-post test, FU) | → | ↗ | 5/10 |