Background
Methods
Study participants
Quality of Care framework
Attributes of quality | Indicators |
---|---|
Structure attributes: Infrastructure equipment and supplies (0–38) Data source: facility inventory | |
Data collection tools (0–3) | Registers for: ANC visits, inpatients and referrals, maternal deaths |
Infrastructure (0–6) | Source of clean water, 24 h power for fridge, autoclave/sterilization, lighting, infection prevention buckets, chlorine for processing equipment |
PE/E Guidelines (0–5) | Protocols for diagnosis PE/E, managing PE/E, administering MgSO4 |
General Equipment (0–11) | Stethoscopes, sphygmomanometers, urine collection containers, dipsticks, patella hammers, self-retaining catheter, urine bag, 20 ml syringe, saline (IV), IV equipment, syringe/needles |
Availability of Drugs (0–5) | Availability of magnesium sulfate, calcium gluconate, anti-hypertensives, xylocaine, misoprostol |
Referral Mechanisms (0–4) | Transport system/ambulance, 24/7 referral system, facility makes transport arrangements, client is accompanied to referral facility |
Capacity for HDP-specific services (0–4) | See pre-eclamptic/eclamptic patients in ANC visits, admit pre-eclamptic patients into labor ward, admit clients with eclampsia to maternity ward |
Structure attributes: provider knowledge and training (0–66) Data source: provider interview | |
Trainings in past 3 years (0–7) | Any maternal/FP training, emergency obstetric care, ANC, safe delivery, skilled birth attendant, family planning, lab investigations |
Signs and Symptoms of HDPs (0–12) | Definition of HDPs, signs of mild PE (Y/N), signs of eclampsia (Y/N), signs of severe PE: high BP, proteinuria, severe headaches, changes in vision, light sensitivity, upper abdominal pain, nausea/vomiting, decreased urine output, edema |
Management/Treatment of PE (0–8) | Admit, start monitoring signs, monitor BP, monitor fetal heart rate, monitor fluid input/output, quantitative monitoring of proteinuria, administer anti-hypertensive, refer to nearest doctor/specialist |
Management of Severe PE (0–9) | Admit, start monitoring signs, monitor BP, monitor fetal heart rate, monitor fluid input/output, quantitative monitoring of proteinuria, administer anti-hypertensive, administer anti-seizure/magnesium sulfate, refer to nearest doctor/specialist |
Management of Eclampsia (0–11) | Admit, start monitoring signs, monitor BP, monitor fetal heart rate, monitor fluid input/output, quantitative monitoring of proteinuria, keep tongue blade ready for possible seizure, administer anti-hypertensive, administer anti-seizure/magnesium sulfate, induce delivery, refer to nearest doctor/specialist |
Diagnosis of HDPs (0–3) | Chronic hypertension, PE, eclampsia |
Use of MgSO4 (0–7) | Know total loading dose for MgSO4, know maintenance dose for MgSO4, 2 ways to monitor toxicity, drug used to treat toxicity, how to administer drug to treat toxicity, 1 advantage/disadvantage of using MgSO4, believe that morbidity/mortality will decrease with use of loading dose |
Eclampsia Prophylaxis (0–4) | Guidelines on giving prophylaxis to prevent PE, which drug to give to prevent PE, currently use aspirin among women at risk of PE/E, 1 advantage/disadvantage of using prophylaxis to prevent PE |
Antihypertensive Drugs (0–5) | Use antihypertensive to control HT in PE patients, use vasodilators to control severe HT in PE/E patients, know correct BP at which anti-hypertensives are administered, know correct BP at which vasodilators are administered, use antihypertensive to treat pregnant women with high BP |
Process attributes: provider technical skills (0–37) Data source: client-provider observations and client exit interview | |
History taking (0–9) | Date of last menstrual period, any current medication, general health problems, history of hypertension/high BP, diabetes, asthma, TB, malaria, STI/STD |
Previous pregnancy history taking (0–6) | Type and duration of last delivery, history of miscarriage/abortion, stillbirth, neonatal death, cesarean section |
Physical examination (0–9) | Weight, blood pressure, pulse, conjunctiva, body temperature, edema, abdomen palpation, fetal movement/heart rate |
Lab tests (0–2) | Urine: glucose, albumin |
Health promotion/ disease prevention (0–12) | Provided: malaria prophylaxis, tetanus toxoid injection, iron/folic acid supplements, HIV test; took blood sample, urine sample; gave advice/information on: diet & nutrition, insecticide-treated bed nets, STIs/AIDS, PMTCT of HIV, danger signs of pregnancy, self-care |
Encouragement of continuation of care (0–3) | Told when and where to return for follow-up, given written reminder of date for follow-up |
Documentation (0–2) | nfo recorded on: client’s ANC card, in registers |
Process attributes: provider interpersonal skills (0–11) Data source: client-provider interactions | |
Rapport (0–7) | Used client’s name, greeted client in friendly manner, requested client to take a seat, maintained audio & visual privacy, treated client with respect, client felt comfortable asking questions |
Communication (0–4) | Used words client could understand, listened to client attentively, inquired for need of other services, answer client’s inquiries |
Outcome attributes: client experiences (0–16) Data source: client exit interview | |
Wait and cost (0–3) | Time spent waiting was reasonable, time with provider was reasonable, amount paid was reasonable |
Satisfaction (0–5) | Satisfied with services received, would recommend to a friend, will return: before giving birth, 1 week after birth, 6 weeks after birth |
Health comprehension/literacy (0–8) | Opportunity to ask questions, encouraged to return for another visit, discussed progress of pregnancy, provided results from: checkup, blood pressure, urine test; explained results from: blood pressure, urine test |
Categorical and Continuous Outcome Measures | |
Wait time (average) | Wait before seeing provider |
Time spent with provider (average) | Length of consultation |
First ANC Visit | Proportion of women attending a first ANC visit in < 10 weeks, 10–19 weeks, 20–29 weeks, or 30+ weeks |
Amount willing to pay | Amount client is willing to pay for services (in USD) |
Satisfaction | Proportion of women satisfied, somewhat satisfied, or not at all satisfied with services |
Knowledge of danger signs | Proportion of women who know none, 1, 2, or 3 danger signs of pregnancy that would make them return to the facility |
Data collection
Structure
Process
Outcome
Data analysis
Results
Descriptive characteristics
Client characteristics | Total | PHC | Hospital | P-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|
(n = 135) | (n = 38) | (n = 97) | ||
Mean age (years) ± SD | 27.87 ± 8.23 | 24.89 ± 5.88 | 28.32 ± 5.15 | 0.001 |
Mean gravidity ± SD | 2.79 ± 2.05 | 3.16 ± 2.49 | 2.65 ± 1.84 | 0.256 |
Mean gestational age (weeks) ± SD | 28.26 ± 8.43 | 30.13 ± 8.56 | 27.43 ± 8.29 | 0.120 |
Mean gestational age at 1st ANC visit (weeks) ± SD | 20.83 ± 7.78 | 21.9 ± 8.06 | 20.49 ± 7.71 | 0.413 |
Mean # ANC visitsb | ||||
Gestational age < 20 weeks (n = 13) | 2.23 ± 1.79 | 2.00 ± 2.00 | 2.33 ± 1.80 | 0.771 |
Gestational Age 20–29 weeks (n = 27) | 2.15 ± 1.54 | 2.60 ± 1.52 | 2.05 ± 1.56 | 0.477 |
Gestational age 30+ weeks (n = 64) | 3.43 ± 2.09 | 3.39 ± 1.9 | 3.45 ± 2.21 | 0.920 |
Education [n (%)] | <0.001 | |||
Primary or below primary | 41 (30.4) | 18 (47.4) | 23 (23.7) | |
Secondary | 41 (30.1) | 19 (50) | 22 (22.7) | |
Postsecondary | 53 (39.3) | 1 (2.6) | 52 (53.6) | |
Religion [n (%)] | 0.001 | |||
Christian | 60 (44.4) | 8 (21.1) | 52 (53.6) | |
Muslim | 75 (55.6) | 30 (78.9) | 45 (46.4) | |
Marital status [n (%)] | 1.000a | |||
Married/living together | 130 (96.3) | 37 (97.4) | 93 (95.9) | |
Divorced/separated/widowed | 5 (3.7) | 1 (2.6) | 4 (4.1) | |
Health insurance coverage [n (%)]b | 0.191 | |||
Yes | 19 (23.8) | 2 (11.8) | 17 (27.0) | |
No | 61 (76.3) | 15 (88.2) | 46 (73.0) | |
Socioeconomic status [n (%)] | 0.051 | |||
Low | 50 (37.0) | 9 (23.7) | 41 (42.3) | |
Medium | 63 (46.7) | 24 (63.2) | 39 (40.2) | |
High | 22 (16.3) | 5 (13.2) | 17 (17.5) | |
Spending decision [n (%)] b | 0.285 | |||
Myself | 10 (8.3) | 3 (8.6) | 7 (8.2) | |
Partner | 49 (40.8) | 16 (45.7) | 33 (38.8) | |
Both myself and partner | 51 (42.5) | 11 (31.4) | 40 (47.1) | |
Other | 10 (8.3) | 5 (14.3) | 5 (5.9) | |
PROVIDERS | Total | PHC | Hospital | |
(n = 201) | (n = 105) | (n = 96) | ||
Mean age ± SD | 39.06 ± 9.64 | 38.15 ± 9.79 | 40.10 ± 9.40 | 0.164 |
gender [n (%)] | 0.396 | |||
Male | 37 (18.4) | 17 (16.2) | 20 (20.8) | |
Female | 164 (81.6) | 88 (83.8) | 76 (79.2) | |
Type of provider [n (%)] | <0.001 | |||
Obstetrician/Gynecologist | 6 (3.0) | 0 (0.0) | 6 (6.3) | |
General Practitioner | 20 (10.0) | 5 (4.8) | 15 (15.6) | |
Nurse/midwife | 83 (41.3) | 19 (18.1) | 64 (66.7) | |
Community Health Extension Worker | 79 (39.3) | 68 (64.8) | 11 (11.5) | |
Community Health Officer | 13 (6.5) | 13 (12.4) | 0 (0.0) |
Structural attributes of care: inventory/infrastructure
Structure Attributes | Total | Primary | Secondary | p-value | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | % of total | Mean | SD | % of total | Mean | SD | % of total | ||
Data collection tools (0–3) | 2.72 | 0.56 | 90.5 | 2.64 | 0.59 | 88.1 | 2.82 | 0.51 | 94.0 | 0.059* |
Infrastructure (0–6) | 2.78 | 0.18 | 46.3 | 2.45 | 0.21 | 40.8 | 3.26 | 0.29 | 54.3 | 0.012 |
Guidelines (0–5) | 1.69 | 0.20 | 33.9 | 1.45 | 0.25 | 28.9 | 2.05 | 0.33 | 41.0 | 0.071 |
General equipment (0–11) | 6.43 | 0.30 | 58.5 | 5.96 | 0.40 | 54.2 | 7.10 | 0.43 | 64.6 | 0.030 |
Drugs (0–5) | 1.93 | 0.12 | 38.5 | 1.79 | 0.14 | 35.7 | 2.13 | 0.22 | 42.6 | 0.087 |
Referral mechanisms (0–4) | 2.40 | 0.11 | 60.0 | 2.20 | 0.14 | 54.9 | 2.69 | 0.18 | 67.3 | 0.016 |
Capacity for HDP-specific services (0–4) | 2.04 | 0.14 | 51.1 | 1.55 | 0.16 | 38.8 | 2.74 | 0.19 | 68.6 | 0.000 |
Total for inventory/ infrastructure (0–38) | 19.99 | 0.73 | 52.6 | 18.04 | 0.91 | 47.5 | 22.79 | 1.06 | 60.0 | 0.001 |
Training in last 3 years (0–6) | 1.18 | 0.10 | 19.7 | 1.13 | 0.13 | 18.8 | 1.24 | 0.17 | 20.7 | 0.293 |
Signs of HDPs (0–12) | 7.66 | 0.22 | 63.8 | 7.21 | 0.32 | 60.1 | 8.14 | 0.30 | 67.8 | 0.019 |
Management of pre-eclampsia (0–8) | 4.15 | 0.18 | 51.8 | 4.22 | 0.25 | 52.8 | 4.06 | 0.26 | 50.8 | 0.669 |
Management of severe pre-eclampsia (0–9) | 4.85 | 0.24 | 53.9 | 4.42 | 0.35 | 49.2 | 5.31 | 0.33 | 59.0 | 0.032* |
Management of eclampsia (0–11) | 6.29 | 0.32 | 57.1 | 5.47 | 0.46 | 49.7 | 7.17 | 0.44 | 65.2 | 0.004 |
Diagnosis of HDPs (0–3) | 1.97 | 0.07 | 65.5 | 1.74 | 0.10 | 58.0 | 2.21 | 0.09 | 73.6 | 0.000 |
Usage of MgSO4 (0–7) | 1.63 | 0.12 | 23.2 | 1.12 | 0.13 | 15.9 | 2.18 | 0.20 | 31.1 | 0.000* |
Usage of eclampsia prophylaxis (0–4) | 3.81 | 0.04 | 95.1 | 3.89 | 0.05 | 97.4 | 3.71 | 0.06 | 92.7 | 0.994* |
Usage of antihypertensive drugs (0–5) | 0.92 | 0.08 | 18.4 | 0.68 | 0.09 | 13.7 | 1.18 | 0.13 | 23.5 | 0.001* |
Total knowledge/ training score (0–65) | 32.44 | 0.92 | 49.9 | 29.88 | 1.25 | 46.0 | 35.19 | 1.31 | 54.1 | 0.002 |
Structural attributes of care: provider knowledge/training
Process attributes of care: provider technical skills
Process Attribute | Total | Primary | Secondary | p-value | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | SD | % of total | Mean | SD | % of total | Mean | SD | % of total | ||
History taking for women with previous pregnancy (0–6) | 3.22 | 0.22 | 53.7 | 2.38 | 0.45 | 39.6 | 3.53 | 0.25 | 58.8 | 0.011 |
History taking (0–9) | 5.00 | 0.23 | 55.6 | 3.79 | 0.49 | 42.2 | 5.49 | 0.24 | 61.0 | 0.000 |
Physical exam (0–9) | 5.64 | 0.13 | 62.6 | 5.62 | 0.18 | 62.4 | 5.65 | 0.16 | 62.7 | 0.457 |
Lab tests (0–2) | 1.04 | 0.08 | 52.2 | 0.85 | 0.16 | 42.3 | 1.13 | 0.09 | 56.3 | 0.060 |
Documentation (0–2) | 1.46 | 0.06 | 73.0 | 1.31 | 0.12 | 65.4 | 1.52 | 0.07 | 76.0 | 0.063 |
Disease prevention (0–12) | 8.35 | 0.21 | 69.6 | 8.47 | 0.34 | 70.6 | 8.30 | 0.26 | 69.2 | 0.644 |
Follow-up/continuation of care (0–3) | 2.35 | 0.08 | 78.3 | 2.44 | 0.12 | 81.2 | 2.31 | 0.10 | 77.1 | 0.752 |
Total provider/technical skills score (0–37)a | 17.64 | 0.44 | 47.7 | 15.61 | 0.84 | 42.2 | 18.43 | 0.49 | 49.8 | 0.002 |
Rapport (0–7) | 6.21 | 0.10 | 88.7 | 6.23 | 0.16 | 89.0 | 6.20 | 0.13 | 88.5 | 0.559 |
Communication (0–4) | 3.15 | 0.07 | 53.7 | 3.15 | 0.11 | 78.8 | 3.15 | 0.08 | 78.6 | 0.522 |
Total interpersonal skills score (0–11) | 9.36 | 0.137 | 85.1 | 9.38 | 0.21 | 85.3 | 9.34 | 0.17 | 84.9 | 0.553 |
Process attributes of care: provider interpersonal skills
Outcome attributes of care
Outcome Attribute | Total | Primary | Secondary | p-value | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
mean | SD | % of total | mean | SD | % of total | mean | SD | % of total | ||
Wait and cost (0–3) | 1.58 | 0.09 | 52.6 | 1.34 | 0.17 | 44.7 | 1.67 | 0.11 | 55.7 | 0.052 |
Satisfaction (0–5) | 3.01 | 0.11 | 60.3 | 2.76 | 0.23 | 55.3 | 3.11 | 0.12 | 62.3 | 0.092* |
Health literacy (0–8) | 3.80 | 0.20 | 47.5 | 3.16 | 0.33 | 39.5 | 4.05 | 0.24 | 50.6 | 0.020 |
Total outcome score (0–16) | 8.39 | 0.26 | 52.5 | 7.26 | 0.51 | 45.4 | 8.84 | 0.30 | 55.2 | 0.004 |
Key outcome measures of quality of care | Total | PHC | Hospital | p-value |
---|---|---|---|---|
(n = 135) | (n = 38) | (n = 97) | ||
Mean wait time (minutes) ± SD | 93.8 ± 78.13 | 96.41 ± 81.0 | 92.85 ± 77.63 | 0.839 |
Wait time [n (%)]c | 0.285 | |||
<1 h | 33 (31.4) | 10 (37.0) | 23 (29.5) | |
1–2 h | 45 (42.9) | 8 (29.6) | 37 (47.4) | |
>2 h | 27 (25.7) | 9 (33.3) | 18 (23.1) | |
Mean time spent with provider (minutes) ± SD | 20.4 ± 17.68 | 23.6 ± 19.8 | 18.8 ± 16.7 | 0.415 |
Time spent with provider [n (%)]c | 0.185a | |||
<5 min | 9 (21.4) | 1 (7.1) | 8 (28.6) | |
5–19 min | 15 (35.7) | 7 (50.0) | 8 (28.6) | |
20–39 min | 10 (23.8) | 2 (14.3) | 8 (28.6) | |
>40 min | 8 (19.0) | 4 (28.6) | 4 (14.3) | |
First ANC visit [n (%)]c | 0.616a | |||
<15 weeks | 28 (24.1) | 5 (17.9) | 23 (26.1) | |
15–24 weeks | 41 (35.3) | 9 (32.1) | 32 (36.4) | |
25–30 weeks | 28 (24.1) | 9 (32.1) | 19 (21.6) | |
>30 weeks | 19 (16.4) | 5 (17.9) | 14 (15.9) | |
Mean amount willing to pay for services (USD) b ± SD | 1.06 ± 1.59 | 0.43 ± 0.40 | 1.28 ± 1.79 | 0.044 |
Amount willing to pay for services [n (%)] c | 0.741a | |||
<0.27 USD | 6 (19.4) | 2 (25.0) | 4 (17.4) | |
0.27–1.37 USD | 18 (58.1) | 5 (62.5) | 13 (56.5) | |
>1.37 USD | 7 (22.6) | 1 (12.5) | 6 (26.1) | |
Satisfaction [n (%)]c | 0.110a | |||
Satisfied | 107 (92.2) | 31 (100.0) | 76 (89.4) | |
Somewhat or not satisfied | 9 (7.8) | 0 (0.0) | 9 (10.6) | |
Knowledge of danger signs in pregnancy [n (%)] | 0.504a | |||
0 | 69 (51.1) | 21 (55.3) | 48 (49.5) | |
1 | 30 (22.2) | 10 (26.3) | 20 (20.6) | |
2 | 29 (21.5) | 5 (13.2) | 24 (24.7) | |
3 | 7 (5.2) | 2 (5.3) | 5 (5.2) |