Background
Methods
Study design and setting
Project team and working group
Systematic scoping review research questions and scope
Systematic scoping review research questions |
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For children aged under 6 years: |
1. What is the evidence on efficacy of tools to screen middle ear status, including sensitivity and specificity? |
2. What is the evidence on efficacy of tools to screen hearing and listening, including sensitivity and specificity? |
3. What are the recommended components for ear and hearing checks? |
4. What are the key ages for ear and hearing checks? |
Search strategy
Expert panel
Survey development and administration
Finalising recommendations, resolving lack of consensus, and providing feedback
Ethical considerations
Results
Findings of systematic scoping review
Tools for screening ear health | |||||
Author/year and study type | Sample | Study setting | Ref test | Comparator test | Key findings and effect measures |
Chianese et al, 2007 [48] Non-randomised comparative study | 786 healthy children aged 2-24 months | Primary care, US | Tympanometry and Spectral Grade Acoustic Reflectometry (SGAR) | Pneumatic otoscopy | - Tympanometry slightly more discerning than SGAR in predicting middle ear fluid: tympanometry AUC = 0.83 and SGAR AUC = 0.78 - 95%CI not reported |
Helenius et al, 2012 [49] Non-randomised comparative study | 515 children 0.5-3 years (mean 16 months) | Primary health care, Finland | Tympanometry | Pneumatic otoscopy | - All peaked tympanograms could be taken as healthy middle ears in primary care - Tympanometry unable to differentiate acute OM (AOM) from OM with effusion (OME) - For asymptomatic children: when middle ear aerated, tympanogram peaked in 97% of exams; when AOM diagnosed, tympanogram flat in 46% of exams; when persistent OME diagnosed, tympanogram flat in 71% of exams - Tympanometry unclear/not obtained: 24% - No analytical statistics reported |
Abbott et al, 2014 [50] Cross over study | 347 children aged 0.5-6 years | GPs in primary health care, Australia | Tympanometry and pneumatic otoscopy | Standard otoscopy | - After performing tympanometry or pneumatic otoscopy, GPs were three times more likely to amend diagnosis (χ 2 = 28.64, df 1, p < 0.001) and management plan (χ 2 = 9.24, df 1, p < 0.01) made on basis of otoscopy alone - GPs preferred tympanometry, but felt cost was a barrier to routine use |
Puhakka et al, 2014 [51] Non-randomised comparative study | 600 children aged 0.6 to 14 years | Study physicians in primary health care, Finland | Tympanometry and Spectral Grade Acoustic Reflectometry (SGAR) | Pneumatic otoscopy | - Good observed agreement (86%) between SGAR and tympanometry in children - Advantages of SGAR: low cost, portability, and no need for an airtight seal - SGAR sensitivity 53% (46-59), specificity 93% (92-94), positive predictive value 48% (41-53) and negative predictive value 94% (93-95) - Tympanometry sensitivity 56% (50-62), specificity 96% (95-96), positive predictive value 60% (53-66) and negative predictive value 95% (94-96) |
Alenezi et al, 2021 [52] Non-randomised comparative study | 157 children aged 0.5-15 years | ENTs, audiologists, trained assistants at community events, Australia | Video-otoscopy images | Standard otoscopy | - Video-otoscopy images produced significantly higher quality images than traditional otoscopy, across almost all domains rated (p < 0.05) - Image quality significant reduced with younger patient age (p < 0.03) |
Kleinman, K et al, 2021 [42] Randomised controlled trial | 197 children aged 0-21 years (48% aged 0-2 years, 32% aged 3-7 years) | Paediatric emergency department and primary care clinic, US | Smartphone video-otoscopy | Standard otoscopy | - Accuracy of ear examination findings using smartphone otoscope improved by 11.2% (95% CI: 1.5, 21.8%, p = 0.033) relative to traditional otoscopy, to 74.8% (95% CI: 67.3, 82.1%) |
Tools for screening hearing | |||||
Author/year and study type | Sample | Study setting | Ref test | Comparator test | Key findings |
Newton et al. 2001 [46] Non-randomised comparative study | 757 children aged 2.2-7.5 years. Median age 5.4 years. | Community nurses in nursery schools and child health clinics, Kenya | 8-question parent/ caregiver questionnaire exploring behavioural responses to sound and communication ability designed to detect bilateral hearing loss > 40 dB HL. | ENT and audiological evaluation by ENT Clinical Officers | - 100% sensitive for bilateral hearing loss of 40 dB HL and greater and 75% specific when compared against audiometry thresholds and ENT ear observations - Negative predictive value was 100%, but positive predictive value was low, at 6.75%. - No confidence intervals reported - Authors concluded that the questionnaire, administered by healthcare workers, could be usefully applied in primary healthcare for detecting hearing impairment at the pre-school stage |
Mahomed-Asmail et al. 2016 [45] Non-randomised comparative study | 1070 children aged 5-12 years; average age 8 years. | Primary schools, South Africa | hearScreen smartphone screening app and conventional screening audiometry | Diagnostic audiometry | - No significant difference in performance - Smartphone screener and conventional screening demonstrated equivalent sensitivity (75%) and similar specificity (98.5% and 97% respectively) - Positive and negative predictive values 52.9% and 99.4% for smartphone screener, and 36.7% and 99.4% for conventional hearing screening. - No confidence intervals reported |
Ramkumar et al 2018 [47] Non-randomised comparative study | 119 children (43) and young infants (76) aged 0-5 years | Trained village health workers, community setting, India | Distortion Product Otoacoustic Emissions (DPOAE) | Tele-Auditory Brainstem Response testing | - The study found acceptable validity: sensitivity of DPOAE screening was 75% (CI: 69-81) and specificity, 91% (CI: 87-95) - Negative and positive predictive values were 99% (CI: 98-100) and 27% (CI: 21-33), respectively |
Mealings et al, 2020 [44] Non-randomised comparative study | 297 Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children aged 4–14 years | Primary schools, Australia | Sound Scouts game-based hearing test app for smartphones and tablets | Pure tone audiometry, Listening in Spatialised Noise – Sentences high-cue condition | - Sensitivity of Sound Scouts for average hearing loss of >20 dB HL was 41% and specificity was 89%; and for average hearing loss >30 dB HL, sensitivity at 88% and specificity at 88% - Consistent pass/fail results on Sound Scouts speech-in-noise measure and Listening in Spatialised Noise – Sentences test high-cue condition were found for 73% of children |
Orzan et al. 2021 [53] Non-randomised comparative study | 309 children aged 1-36 months | Oto-rhino-laryngology and audiology unit of a medical institute, Italy | Parental assessment of auditory skills using the Questionnaire on Hearing and Communication Abilities (QUAC) | Audiological evaluation of children at a secondary care institute | - Parents reported a decrease in auditory skills for children with sensorineural hearing loss (Χ2(2)=14.4, p=0.003), with increased concern expressed in 59% compared with 24% in normally hearing children - Positive predictive value was 0.78, but with low sensitivity (0.39) - No confidence intervals reported - Conclusion: parents have capacity to recognise non-typical auditory behaviours; an auditory abilities checklist can complement existing primary healthcare screening procedures |
Reviewed Guidelines |
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1. Otitis Media Guidelines for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Children (2020) [16] |
2. National guide to a preventive health assessment for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people. 3 ed. (2018) [17] |
3. American Academy of Pediatrics Joint Committee on Infant Hearing: Year 2007 position statement: Principles and guidelines for early hearing detection and intervention programs (2007) [54] |
4. American Academy of Family Physicians, American Academy of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, American Academy of Pediatrics Subcommittee on Otitis Media with Effusion. Otitis Media With Effusion Clinical Practice Guideline (2004) [55] |
5. Clinical Practice Guideline: Otitis Media with Effusion (Update) (2016) [56] |
6. American Academy of Audiology Clinical Practice Guidelines Childhood Hearing Screening (2011) [57] |
7. Danish guidelines on management of otitis media in preschool children (2016) [58] |
8. Korean clinical practice guidelines: otitis media in children (2012) [59] |
Characteristics of the expert panel
Expert panel characteristics | Expert panel n (%) |
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Gender | |
Female | 63 (80%) |
Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander | |
Yes | 17 (21%) |
Sectora - n (%) | |
Primary care | 47 (59%) |
Secondary care | 5 (6%) |
Tertiary care | 15 (19%) |
Research | 10 (13%) |
Health setting | |
Community controlled health service | 27 (34%) |
Mainstream health service | 35 (44%) |
Jurisdiction | |
National | 7 (9.9%) |
New South Wales | 18 (22.8%) |
Queensland | 12 (15.2%) |
Northern Territory | 11 (13.9%) |
Western Australia | 10 (12.7%) |
South Australia | 8 (10.1%) |
Victoria | 6 (7.6%) |
Tasmania | 2 (2.5%) |
Australian Capital Territory | 1 (1.3%) |
New Zealand | 4 (5.1%) |
Experienced in remote settings | |
Yes | 29 (37%) |
Professiona | |
Aboriginal and/or Torres Strait Islander Health Worker or Health Practitioner | 10 (12.7%) |
Nurse (child and family health nurse or other) | 17 (21.5%) |
General Practitioner | 8 (10.1%) |
Audiologist/Audiometrist | 16/1 (21.5%) |
Paediatrician | 3 (3.8%) |
Ear Nose and Throat surgeon | 7 (9.9%) |
Findings of the e-Delphi method
Final ear health and hearing check recommendations
Strength of recommendation | Certainty of evidence | Level of expert agreement | Expert feasibility rating | ||
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Domain: Parent and carer-reported history, concerns, signs, and symptoms | |||||
1. | Ask parents/carers about: a) their child’s ear health (recent and longer term); b) any concerns about their child’s ear health, hearing, or communication | Strong | Low | 96% | 92% |
Domain: Listening and communication skills | |||||
2. | From the age of six months, review children’s listening and communication skills development with parents/carers using appropriate questionnaires or checklists | Strong | Very low | 98% | 88% |
Domain: Ear health | |||||
3. | Examine appearance of the ear canal and ear drum, and assess movement of the ear drum and middle ear using either simple otoscopy plus tympanometry OR pneumatic otoscopy | Strong | Low | 93% | 82% |
4. | Use of video otoscopy is suggested for health promotion purposes with parents/carers, and/or for sharing images with other healthcare practitioners | Conditional | Low | 96% | 71% |
Domain: Hearing sensitivity | |||||
5. | Otoacoustic emissions (OAE) testing is suggested to confirm or exclude normal or near-normal hearing when: - equipment is available - primary health practitioners have capability and confidence to use it - there is a local preference for using OAE testing | Conditional | Low | 84% | 75% |
6. | Audiometry is recommended as per Otitis Media Guidelines [16] when: - there are parent/carer and/or practitioner concerns about ear health, hearing, or communication, and/or - the child’s listening and communication development are not yet on track, and/or - there is a persistent or recurrent middle ear condition | Strong | -- | -- | -- |
Timing of routine Ear Health and Hearing Checks | |||||
7. | Following newborn hearing screening, Ear Health and Hearing Checks are recommended at least 6 monthly until the age of 4 years, and then one check at 5 years old | Strong | Low | 88% | 67% |
8. | It is suggested that Ear Health and Hearing Checks be undertaken more frequently than 6 months: - in high-risk settings, and/or - for children aged under two years, and/or - when it is acceptable to families, and/or - in response to parent/carer concerns | Conditional | Low | 88% | 64% |