Background
Methods
Search strategy
Study selection
Data extraction
Assessment of risk of Bias
Data synthesis and statistical analysis
Certainty of evidence
Results
Search results
Description of included studies
First author (year), study location | Sample characteristics: n, mean age ± SD, sex (female ratio) | Intervention group | Control groupa | Follow-up period (weeks)b | Body composition assessment method | Muscle strength assessment method | Physical performance assessment method | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Exercise | Nutrition | |||||||
Aguiar (2013) [28], Brazil | Ic: 9, 64 ± 4, female Cd: 9, 65 ± 6, female | Resistance training using machines, 60 min sessions, 3 times a week, for 24 weeks | 5 g Creatine monohydrate, once a day, for 12 weeks | Placebo: maltodextrin | 24 | Body mass Fat free mass Muscle mass | Bench press Biceps curl Knee extension | Chair stand |
Aoki (2018) [29], Japan | I: 43, 68.8 ± 5.3, mixed (74.4%) C: 45, 71.2 ± 6.8, mixed (75.6%) | Lower body resistance training, daily | 25mcg vitamin D3 (1000 IUe), divided into 3 times, daily | Usual diet | 24 | BMIf Lower limb muscle mass | Hip flexion Knee extension | Chair stand Single leg stance Two step test Functional reach test |
Arnarson (2013) [30], Iceland | I: 83, 73.3 ± 6, mixed (unknown) C: 78, 74.6 ± 5.8, mixed (unknown) | Resistance training using machines, 3 times a week | 20 g of whey protein 3 times a week | Placebo: 250 ml isocaloric carbohydrate drink | 12 | ASMMg Lean body mass | Grip strength Knee extension | TUGh 6-min walk |
Bermon (1998) [31], France | I: 8, 71.0 ± 5.4, mixed (50%) C: 8, 69.3 ± 1.1, mixed (50%) | Resistance training using machines, 3 times a week, for 7 weeks | First 5 days: 5 g creatine monohydrate and 2 g glucose, 4 times a day Following 47 days: 3 g creatine monohydrate and 2 g glucose once a day | Placebo: First 5 days:7 g glucose 4 times a day Following 47 days: 5 g glucose once a day | 8 | Body mass BMI Lower limb muscle volume | Leg press Chest press Knee extension | – |
Bjørnsen (2016) [32], Norway | I: 17, 69 ± 7, male C: 17, 67 ± 5, male | Free weight exercises, 3 times a week | 500 mg vitamin C and 117.5 mg vitamin E, twice a day | Placebo: cellulose and dicalsium phosphate | 12 | Lean body mass Muscle thickness | Biceps curl Knee extension Leg press | – |
Bobeuf (2011) [33], Canada | I: 14, 64.3 ± 3.8, mixed (50%) C: 17, 67 ± 3.7, mixed (52.9%) | Resistance training, 60 min sessions, 3 times a week | 1000 mg vitamin C ascorbate and vitamin E, once a day | Placebo: 100 mg lactose | 24 | ASMM Muscle mass | – | – |
Brose (2003) [34], Canada | I: 14, 69.6 ± 5.4, mixed (42.8%) C: 14, 69.1 ± 4.8, mixed (50%) | Resistance training using machines, 3 times a week | 5 g creatine and 2 g dextrose, once a day | Placebo: 7 g dextrose | 14 | Fat free mass | Grip strength Knee extension Leg press | – |
Chrusch (2001) [35], Canada | I:16, 70.4 ± 6.4, male C:14, 71.1 ± 6.7, male | Resistance training using machines, 3 times a week | Creatine supplement: 0.3 g/kg/day for the first 5 days (loading phase) and 0.07 g/kg/day thereafter, once a day, for 11 weeks | Placebo: sucrose-flour mixture | 12 | Lean body mass | Bench press Knee extension Leg press | – |
Cornish (2018) [36], Canada | I:11, 71.4 ± 6.2, male C:12, 70.9 ± 5, male | Resistance training, 60 min sessions, 3 times a week | 3.0 g omega-3 fatty acid combined 1.98 g EPAi and 0.99 g DHAj, once a day | Placebo: 3.0 g omega 3–6-9 blend | 12 | Body mass Lean body mass | Chest press Leg press | TUG 6-min walk |
Da Boit (2017) [37], UK | I: 27, 70.1 ± 4, mixed (48.1%) C: 23, 70.9 ± 4.2, mixed (43.4%) | Lower body resistance training, twice a week | 3.0 g omega–3 fatty acids containing 2.1 g EPA and 0.6 g DHA, once a day | Placebo: 3.0 g safflower oil | 18 | Muscle anatomic cross-sectional area | Knee extension | Chair stand SPPBk 4 m walk |
Edholom (2017) [38], Sweden | I: 20, 67.2 ± 1.3, female C: 17, 67.9 ± 2.1, female | Resistance training, 60 min sessions, twice a week | Healthy diet: following a dietary consultation and a diet plan with the current dietary guidelines in Europe and US | Usual diet | 24 | Lean body mass | Knee extension Leg press | Chair stand Single leg stance Squat jump TUG |
Holwerda (2018) [39], Netherlands | I: 21, 69 ± 4.6, male C: 20, 71 ± 4.5, male | Resistance exercise training, 3 times a week | 21 g leucine-enriched whey protein (3 g total leucine), once a day | Placebo | 12 | ASMM BMI Body mass Lean body mass | Knee extension Leg press | Chair stand SPPB 4 m walk |
Kawada (2013) [40], Japan | Ia: 10, 65 ± 1, mixed (50%) Ib: 11, 67 ± 3, mixed (72.3%) C: 8, 70 ± 1, mixed (50%) | Low-intensity resistance training, twice a week | Ia: 3.0 g essential amino acid supplements with milk, twice a day Ib: 6.0 g essential amino acid supplements with milk, twice a day | Placebo: 3 g dextrin-contained powder with milk, once a day | 24 | Cross sectional area of Psoas major muscle | – | Gait speed Obstacle course walk 6-min walk |
Leenders (2013) [41], Netherlands | I: 27,70.9 ± 5.4, mixed (44.4%) C: 26, 69.5 ± 3.6, mixed (46.2%) | Resistance training, 3 times a week | 15 g milk protein, once a day | Placebo: 7.13 g lactose and 0.42 g calcium only | 24 | BMI Lean body mass Lower limb lean mass | Grip strength Leg press | Chair stand |
Mori (2018) [42], Japan | I: 25, 70.6 ± 4.2, female C: 25, 70.6 ± 4.2, female | Resistance training, twice a week | 25 g leucine enriched whey protein, once a day | Usual diet | 24 | BMI Lower limb lean mass SMIl Upper limb lean mass | Grip strength Knee extension | Gait speed |
Nabuco (2018) [43], Brazil | Ia: 23, 66.2 ± 9.4, female Ib: 24, 67.5 ± 5.2, female C: 23, 66.5 ± 7.2, female | Resistance training, 3 times a week | Ia: 27.1 g whey protein after resistance training, 3 times a week Ib: 27.1 g whey protein before resistance training, 3 times a week | Placebo: maltodextrin drink | 12 | Lower limb lean mass Skeletal muscle mass Upper limb lean mass | Biceps curl Chest press Knee extension | Chair stand Gait speed |
Nagai (2019) [44], Japan | I: 17, 72.7 ± 1.4, mixed (64.7%) C: 19, 73.5 ± 2.3, mixed (68.4%) | Latex band training, squat, and tai chi, 90 min sessions, once a week | 60 mg maslinic acid, once a day | Placebo: jelly without maslinic acid | 12 | BMI Body mass Fat free mass Skeletal muscle mass Segmental muscle mass | Grip strength | Chair stand Gait speed |
Nakayama (2020) [45], Japan | I: 61, 71.4 ± 6.2, mixed (74%) C: 61, 70.4 ± 5.5, mixed (77%) | Body weight exercises and 5 medicine ball exercises, daily | Low-dose milk protein: 10.1 g protein, once a day | Placebo: Isocaloric carbohydrate | 24 | Body mass Lean body mass | Grip strength Knee extension Knee flexion Push up | Chair stand Gait speed TUG |
Nilsson (2020) [46], Canada | I: 16, 77.4 ± 11.2, male C: 16, 74.4 ± 5.2, male | Home based resistance training with elastic bands, 3 times a week | Multi nutrients: 24 g whey protein, 16 g micellar casein contained 416 mg calcium, 3 g creatine, vitamin D 1000 IU, and omega-3 fish-oil containing 1.51 g EPA and 0.95 g DHA, once a day | Placebo: collagen and sunflower oil | 12 | ASMM Body mass BMI Lean body mass | Grip strength Knee extension Leg press | Chair stand SPPB Stair climb TUG 4 m walk |
Pinto (2016) [47], Brazil | I: 13, 67.4 ± 4.7, mixed (unknown) C: 14, 67.1 ± 6.3, mixed (unknown) | Resistance training, 3 times a week | 5 g Creatine monohydrate, once a day | Placebo: 5 g maltodextrin | 12 | Body mass Lean body mass SMI | Bench press Leg press | – |
Seino (2018) [48], Japan | I: 40, 73.4 ± 4.3, mixed (85%) C: 40, 73.7 ± 4.3, mixed (82.5%) | Weight-bearing exercise and exercises using a resistance band and Pilates ball, 60 min sessions, twice a week | Fortified milk containing 10.5 g total milk protein, 3.9 g fat, 9.3 g carbohydrate, and 337 mg calcium at lunch and micronutrient beverage at breakfast, daily | Usual diet | 12 | Body mass Lean body mass Lower limb lean mass SMI | Grip strength Knee extension | Chair stand Gait speed One leg standing with eyes open TUG |
Stout (2013) [49], USA | I: 24, 73 ± 4.9, mixed (54.2%) C: 24, 73 ± 4.9, mixed (54.2%) | Resistance exercise, 3 times a week for 21 weeks | 1.5 g calcium and 4 g carbohydrate, twice a day | Placebo: 200 mg calcium and 4 g carbohydrate | 24 | Lean body mass Lower limb lean mass Upper limb lean mass | Grip strength | Chair stand |
Sugihara Junior (2018) [50], Brazil | I: 15, 67.4 ± 4.1, female C: 16, 67.8 ± 4.1, female | Resistance training using a combination of free weights and machines, 45 ~ 50 min sessions, 3 times a week | 35 g whey protein, immediately after each resistance training | Placebo: 35 g maltodextrin | 12 | Body mass BMI Lower limb lean mass SMI Upper limb lean mass | Biceps curl Chest press Knee extension | – |
Tarnopolsky (2007) [51], Canada | I: 21,70.7 ± 4.5, mixed (47.6%) C: 18, 71.1 ± 5.5, mixed (55.6%) | Resistance exercise using machines, twice a week | 5 g creatine monohydrate and 6 g conjugated linoleic acid, once a day | Placebo: dextrose and safflower oil | 24 | Body mass BMI Fat free mass | Biceps curl Chest press Knee extension Leg press | Chair stand Gait speed Stair climb Standing balance |
Villanueva (2014) [52], USA | I: 7, 68.7 ± 6.8, male C: 7, 68.7 ± 6.6, male | Progressive overload, total body periodized resistance program, 3 times a week | First 5 days: 0.1 g/kg body weight of creatine 3 times a day and 35 g whey protein once a day Following days: 0.07 g/kg body weight of creatine and 35 g whey protein, once a day | Usual diet | 12 | Lean body mass | Bench press Leg press | Stair climb 400 m walk |
Risk of Bias
Effects of resistance training and nutritional interventions compared with those of resistance training only on muscle mass, muscle strength, and physical functional performance
Subgroup analysis according to type of nutritional interventions
Subgroups | Lean body mass | Appendicular skeletal muscle mass | ||||||||
n | MD | 95% CI | I2 | Subgroup differences | n | MD | 95% CI | I2 | Subgroup differences | |
Creatine | 4 | 2.61 | 0.51 ~ 4.72 | 9% | χ2 = 7.28 (p = .03) | – | – | – | – | χ2 = 0.62 (p = .43) |
Multi-nutrients | 2 | 0.94 | −1.94 ~ 3.82 | 36% | 2 | 0.39 | −0.68 ~ 1.45 | 0% | ||
Protein | 4 | −0.21 | − 0.57 ~ 0.14 | 0% | 2 | −0.20 | −1.23 ~ 0.82 | 47% | ||
Subgroups | Hand grip strength | Knee extension strength | ||||||||
n | SMD | 95% CI | I2 | Subgroup differences | n | SMD | 95% CI | I2 | Subgroup differences | |
Creatine | – | – | – | – | χ2 = 0.12 (p = .73) | 2 | 0.74 | 0.09 ~ 1.38 | 7% | χ2 = 4.89 (p = .09) |
Multi-nutrients | 2 | −0.04 | −0.48 ~ 0.40 | 21% | 2 | 0.05 | −0.36 ~ 0.46 | 12% | ||
Protein | 3 | 0.05 | −0.21 ~ 0.31 | 0% | 6 | −0.02 | −0.20 ~ 0.17 | 0% | ||
Subgroups | Chair stand test | Timed up and go test | ||||||||
n | MD | 95% CI | I2 | Subgroup differences | n | MD | 95% CI | I2 | Subgroup differences | |
Multi-nutrients | 2 | 0.15 | −0.41 ~ 0.72 | 0% | χ2 = 1.05 (p = .31) | 2 | 0.26 | −0.31 ~ 0.83 | 32% | χ2 = 1.02 (p = .31) |
Protein | 3 | −0.21 | −0.60 ~ 0.19 | 0% | 2 | −0.06 | −0.28 ~ 0.17 | 0% |