Background
Methods
Search strategy
Data sources
Search terms and restrictions
Inclusion/exclusion screening
Data extraction and analysis
Element | Description and categorizations |
---|---|
Project name and description | Formal name of project and description of objectives |
Lead project entities and entity type | Lead organization(s) or individuals for the project: academic/research; government; advocacy or issues-based; community-based services; volunteer or relief services; professional association; health services; technology sector; collaborative entity; individuals/loose affiliations |
Partners and other involved entities | Listing of partners or entities cited by the project (if available) |
Geographic setting | U.S., international, or global focus. If U.S., region specified (northeast, southeast, midwest, west, southwest, national (all)). If international, continent specified (North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, Antarctica) |
Project start and end years | Official year of project launch and end year (or ongoing) |
Disaster type | Disaster(s): accidental explosion/fire; harmful algal bloom/cyanobacteria; drought; earthquake; flood; chemical contamination; hurricane/typhoon/cyclone; disease outbreak; technological failure; mud/landslide; nuclear radiation; severe storm/weather; terrorism; tornado; tsunami; volcanic activity; wildfire; all hazards; other |
Disaster phase | Preparedness (pre-disaster, prevention and preparation activities dominate); response (during or in the immediate aftermath of the disaster, crisis activities dominate); recovery (post-disaster, rebuilding activities dominate); all phases |
Citizen science types | Citizen science type based on the level of volunteer involvement:a ○ Contributory. Volunteers involved mainly in data collection or reporting for projects led by professional scientists. ○ Collaborative or co-created. Volunteer and professional scientists working together on many aspects of the research for projects led by either group. ○ Collegial. Volunteers leading all aspects of the research with little participation by professional scientists. |
Citizen scientist participant roles | Roles: (1) data collectors or reporters; (2) data interpreters and/or analyzers; and/or (3) problem definition and/or study design |
Type of technologies used | Technologies used by volunteers: internet-connected device; communication device (e.g., phone, text, fax, radio); online forms/survey tools; crowdsourcing reporting applications (allows users to report or submit information); crowdsourcing analytical applications (allows users to engage in analytical tasks); mapping platforms/technologies; camera/video; sampling equipment/monitors/sensors; do-it-yourself sampling equipment; analytical software or tools; none; other; unknown |
Results
Project name | Description of citizen science or volunteer activities | Location | Dates | Disaster |
---|---|---|---|---|
Distributed sensing projects (n = 19) | ||||
Seismometers in school projects | ||||
1. IRIS networks | Create an international seismometer network in K-16 classrooms | Global | 2001- | EQ |
2. Nera Project | Create a European network of school seismometers | Global | 2011- | EQ |
3. Jamaican Educational Seismic Network | Understand Jamaica’s seismic risk through school-based seismic network | N Am | 2016- | EQ |
4. EduSeis | Create a school-based earthquake monitoring system in four European countries | Europe | 1996- | EQ |
5. O3EProject | Create a seismometer network in European schools | Europe | 2007–09 | EQ |
6. Seismo at School | Create a seismometer network in Swiss schools | Europe | 2007- | EQ |
7. Seismology in Schools (Seismeolaíocht sa Scoil) | Create a seismic network of primary and secondary educational sectors | Europe | 2007- | EQ |
8. SISMOS à l’Ecole | Place seismometers in schools to record regional or global seismic activity | Europe | 2006- | EQ |
9. UK School Seismology Project | School network detects and shares seismometer measurements | Europe | 2007- | EQ |
10. Seismometers in Schools | Create a seismometer network in Australian schools | Australia | 2012- | EQ |
11. Seismometers in Schools | Create a seismometer network in New Zealand schools | Australia | 2013- | EQ |
12. MiQuakes | Place seismometers in Michigan schools | US | 2011- | EQ |
13. Oregon Shakes | Place seismometers in Oregon schools | US | Current | EQ |
14. Princeton Earth Physics Project | Pioneer the creation of seismic networks in U.S. schools | US | 1994 | EQ |
Other projects | ||||
15. MyShake | Create seismic network using smartphone sensors to report earthquake shaking | Global | 2016- | EQ |
16. Quake-Catcher Network | Sense seismic motion through a computer-connected sensor network | Global | 2008- | EQ |
17. Community Seismic Network | Monitor earthquakes through a computer-connected network of sensors | US | 2011- | EQ |
18. NetQuakes | Install seismographs in areas with broadband internet connection | US | 2009- | EQ |
19. weather@home | Run regional climate modeling experiments on network of volunteer computers | Global | 2010- | CL |
Contributory projects (n = 98) | ||||
Seismic surveys | ||||
1. LastQuake (International) | Report earthquake observations through online or mobile applications | Global | 2014- | EQ |
2. Have You Felt an Earthquake, UK | Europe | 2003 | EQ | |
3. Other European countries (n = 26) | Europe | Current | EQ | |
4. Felt It (New Zealand) | Australia | 2001- | EQ | |
5. Did You Feel It? (US) | US | 1997- | EQ | |
Other projects | ||||
6. Impacts of 2010 Haiti earthquake | Community workers conduct health surveys in the Haitian diaspora | US | 2010 | EQ |
7. Cazadores de Crecidas, Argentina | Estimate river discharges through videos and photos to help flood modeling | S Am | 2014- | FL |
8. CITHYD (Citizen Hydrology) | Collect water level data in Italian waterbodies | Europe | 2016- | FL |
9. FloodCrowd | Report floods and impacts | Europe | 2015- | FL |
10. The FloodScale Project | Provide or share home movies of flooding to use in modeling flash floods | Europe | 2012–15 | FL |
11. The RiskScape Project | Provide photo reports of floods to develop flood hazard models | Australia | 2014 | FL |
12. Community flood monitoring | Install rain gauges in volunteer homes | Asia | 2009 | FL |
13. Flood hazard mapping, India | Use participatory mapping approaches to assess flood vulnerability | Asia | − 2014 | FL |
14. Flood Patrol (UP-NOAH) | Report floods and impacts to inform preparedness efforts, Philippines | Asia | 2012- | FL |
15. Jakarta floods (PetaJakarta) | Report flood events using social media | Asia | 2014–15 | FL |
16. Flood, water monitoring, Kenya | Measure water levels in Sondu River basin, Kenya | Africa | 2014- | FL |
17. FLOCAST | Enable citizen flood reports to improve flash-flood predictions | US | 2013- | FL |
18. Citizen science for the El Nino | Report coastal flood impacts due to the 2015–2016 El Nino | US | 2015–16 | FL |
19. Boulder flood | Use of crowdsourcing map to report flood/damage observations | US | 2013 | FL |
20. Crowdmap | Post observations about geological exposures or hazards to online community | Europe | 2011- | FL,LS |
21. Crowdwater | Provide flood, drought reports to improve forecasts of hydrological events | Europe | 2016- | FL,DR |
22. Drought Information Supported by Citizen Scientists (DISCS) | Provide hydrologic and agricultural information to the scientific community | US | 2017- | DR |
23. DroughtWatch | Support local drought vulnerability assessments through reporting data | US | 2009–14 | DR |
24. King Tides Project International | Report King Tides observations to understand flood risk in coastal areas | Global | 2009- | FL,CL |
25. MyCoast King Tides (n = 9) | Document King Tides to track sea level rise and impacts (in nine US states) | US | 2014- | FL,CL |
26. Urban Tides Initiative | Report tide observations to understand effects of sea level rise | US | 2015- | FL,CL,SW |
27. Phones and Drones | Provide photos, videos of coastal damage due to the 2015–16 El Nino in CA | US | 2016 | FL,CL,SW,HR |
28. MyCoast StormReporter (n = 6) | Report coastal storm damages (in six US states) | US | 2014- | FL,SW,HR |
29. mPING | Collect weather information to improve weather predictions and forecasting | Global | 2012- | FL,SW,HR, TD,LS |
30. SKYWARN | Trained weather spotters report data to improve emergency warning services | US | 1960- | FL,SW,HR,TD |
31. Community Collaborative Rain, Hail, and Snow Network | Measure precipitation for drought and flood modeling and monitoring | US | 1998- | FL,SW,DR |
32. Community DustWatch | Monitor wind erosion and dust events in Australia | Australia | 2002- | SW |
33. Send Us your Dirt from Sandy | Send researchers dirt samples post-Superstorm Sandy for chemical analysis | US | 2012–15 | HR |
34. SkyTruth Spill Tracker | Report pollution incidents from hurricanes occurring during the fall of 2017 | US | 2017- | HR |
Collect precipitation during Superstorm Sandy and send to researchers | US | 2012–13 | HR | |
36. El Reno tornado survey | Contribute observations (photos, videos, visual reports) of the El Reno tornado | US | 2013–15 | TD |
37. Report a Landslide | Provide reports of landslide observations in Great Britain | Europe | 2008- | LS |
38. Did You See It? | Contribute to a US database of landslide observations | US | 2012–16 | LS |
39. Bloomin’ Algae! | Report HABs in the United Kingdom | Europe | 2017- | HAB/CB |
40. Algae Alert Network | Monitor for HABs in the St. Croix River, WI | US | 2012- | HAB/CB |
41. bloomWatch | Report cyanobacteria blooms | US | 2010- | HAB/CB |
42. Tracking algal blooms | Engage pilots to photo algal blooms in Lake Erie | US | 2016- | HAB/CB |
43. CyanoTRACKER | Facilitate public reports of cyanobacteria blooms in Georgia waterbodies | US | 2015- | HAB/CB |
44. HAB Watch | Create a HAB monitoring network in Southern California | US | 2011- | HAB/CB |
45. Measure the Muck | Measure waterbody contaminants after flooding that contribute to HABs | US | 2017 | HAB/CB |
46. Smith River algae reports | Visitors photograph and report algae growth in the Smith River, MT | US | 2017- | HAB/CB |
47. Owasco Lake HAB monitoring | Monitor and sample for HABs in Owasco Lake, NY | US | 2015- | HAB/CB |
48. HAB monitoring (Multiple) | Integrate HAB monitoring into regular water quality monitoring activities | US | Current | HAB/CB |
49. Forest fuels measurement | Report data on forest fuels observations for wildfire risk prediction | N Am | 2012- | WF |
50. Live fuel moisture monitoring | Measure moisture content in living plant tissue to predict wildfire risk | US | 2013- | WF |
51. Is Ash Falling? | Collect ashfall samples during volcanic eruptions | Global | 2013- | VL |
52. myVolcano | Collect ash samples during volcanic eruptions and report observations | Europe | 2010- | VL |
53. Global Mosquito Alert | Enact global surveillance and control of mosquito species | Global | 2017- | DO |
54. MosquitoWEB | Observe and send mosquitoes to researchers in Portugal | Europe | 2014- | DO |
55. Muggenradar (Mosquito Radar) | Observe and send mosquitoes to researchers in the Netherlands | Europe | 2014- | DO |
56. Animal mortality monitoring | Monitor and report animal deaths to prevent Ebola outbreaks | Africa | 2001–03 | DO |
57. Oil Reporter | Report observations of oil spill hazards | US | 2010–11 | CH |
58. Oil Spill Tracker | Report and track impacts of the Deepwater Horizon oil spill | US | 2010–17 | CH |
59. Integrated Fukushima Ocean Radionuclide Monitoring Network | Monitor Canada’s oceans for radionuclides through seawater sampling | N Am | 2014- | NR |
60. Our Radioactive Ocean | Collect seawater samples to monitor radiation levels | US | 2013- | NR |
Distributed intelligence (n = 52) | ||||
1. Digital humanitarian projects (n = 34) | Support disaster response efforts in real-time through analyzing large amounts of different types of data. Includes 34 deployments. | N Am, S Am, Europe, Asia, Australia, US, Africa, Oceania | 2010–17 | EQ,FL,HR, DO,VL,TR, DR |
2. Fukushima Futaba 2011 Archive of Japan Disasters | Preserve memories of affected communities in Futaba, Japan and foster research | Asia | 2013- | EQ,NR,TS |
3. SHETRAN and River Watch group catchment monitoring | Implement community flood observation program in northeast England to support development of a catchment model | Europe | 2013–16 | FL |
4. Storm Photo | Document and determine severity of flooding in California | US | 2015- | FL |
5. WeSenseIt | Create citizen flood observatories through use of sensor devices | Europe | 2012–16 | FL,CL,DR |
6. Operation Weather Rescue | Transcribe old weather observations for climate modeling | Europe | 2017- | SW |
7. iCoast – Did the Coast Change? | Identify coastal changes following extreme storms | US | 2014- | SW,HR |
8. CycloneCenter | Estimate intensity of cyclones through satellite images | Global | 2012- | HR |
9. Agricultural recovery post-Hurricane Mitch | Enlist Nicaraguan farmers in assessing farming methods that could enhance disaster recovery | S Am | 1999 | HR |
10. Rural Alaska Monitoring Program | Community monitoring for climate-mediated health threats | US | 2014- | CL,HAB/CB |
11. cyanoMonitoring | Monitor cyanobacteria populations over time | US | 2010- | HAB/CB |
12. cyanoScope | Understand where and when cyanobacteria species occur | US | 2010- | HAB/CB |
13. SoundToxins | Explore Puget Sound conditions that affect algal bloom events | US | 2006- | HAB/CB |
14. National Phytoplankton Monitoring Network | Monitor marine phytoplankton and algal blooms across the US | US | 2001- | HAB/CB |
15. Community volcano monitoring | Create network for volcano monitoring in Ecuador | S Am | 2000 | VL |
16. Mosquito Habitat Mapper | Track mosquito larvae, eliminate breeding sites, and share data | Global | 2017- | DO |
17. Mosquito Alert | Track mosquitos, breeding sites, and validate shared photos | Europe | 2014- | DO |
18. Zanzamapp | Trap and report on mosquitoes in Italy | Europe | 2016- | DO |
19. Invasive Mosquito Project | Track invasive mosquito species across the US | US | 2015- | DO |
Collaborative research (n = 32) | ||||
1. Maori response to Christchurch earthquakes | Understand how cultural attributes inform preparedness strategies | Australia | 2010–15 | EQ |
2. Environmental Competency Groups | Demonstrate a method for collaborative investigation | Europe | 2007- | FL |
3. Flood Network | Create flood detection network in the United Kingdom | Europe | 2014- | FL |
4. Participatory water monitoring in Tanzania | Villagers collect and analyze data to address flood concerns | Africa | 2001–11 | FL |
5. Environmental exposure survey, Atlanta | Document asthma and exposures in two flood-prone communities | US | 2014 | FL |
6. Beacon of Hope M.O.D.E.L., Hurricane Katrina | Map recovery needs using community-led recovery framework | US | 2006- | HR |
7. Community mapping post-Katrina | Pastors address uneven redevelopment patterns post-Katrina | US | 2007 | HR |
8. Health care needs in New Orleans post-Katrina | Engage community to understand healthcare needs post-disaster | US | 2006 | HR |
9. Participatory action research post-Katrina | Use participatory photo approach to assess health experiences | US | 2006–09 | HR |
10. Videovoice for recovery post-Katrina | Use participatory video approach to address issues of concern | US | 2007–08 | HR |
11. Participatory research after Hurricane Floyd | Develop a survey to document displaced survivor experiences | US | 2000–01 | HR |
12. PhotoVoice for disaster reduction strategies | Use participatory photo approach for vulnerability assessments | US | −2013 | TS |
13. Lake Winnipeg citizen science initiative | Monitoring algal bloom formation in Lake Winnipeg, Canada | N Am | 2016- | HAB/CB |
14. Lake Champlain volunteer monitoring | Document algal blooms in Lake Champlain | US | 2004- | HAB/CB |
15. Appalachian Water Watch | Report emergency water pollution events | US | 2013- | HAB/CB, CH |
16. Participatory action research in Australia | Investigate pandemic influenza risk in Indigenous communities | Australia | 2007 | DO |
17. Mosquito Alert (Hong Kong) | Track mosquitos, breeding sites, and validate photos | Asia | 2017- | DO |
18. Understanding fishing communities | Address oil spill risks in Vietnamese-American fishing communities | US | 2017- | CH |
19. Consortium for oil spill exposure pathways | Address oil spill risks in Vietnamese-American fishing communities | US | 2015- | CH |
20. Monitoring oil contamination in Louisiana | Develop a citizen science oil spill monitoring program | US | 2017- | CH |
21. Oil Spill Crisis Map | Report and map impacts of Deepwater Horizon oil spill | US | 2010- | CH |
22. Flint water crisis | Test tap water for lead contamination in Flint, Michigan | US | 2015–17 | CH |
23. Love Canal contamination | Perform health surveys to assess chemical contamination | US | 1978–80 | CH |
24. The Buffalo Lupus project | Assess links between waste site exposure and autoimmune disease | US | 2001–06 | CH |
25. Graniteville recovery & chlorine epidemiology | Address community recovery of Graniteville, SC post-chlorine spill | US | 2005–15 | CH |
26. Tonawanda Coke Corporation pollution | Address exposure and health impacts resulting from pollution | US | 2005–09 | CH |
27. Safecast | Map global radiation and build worldwide sensor network | Global | 2011- | NR |
28. Citizen Radioactivity Measuring Stations | Take radiation measurements and make judgments on risks | Asia | 2011- | NR |
29. Towa Organic Village, Japan and Fukushima | Villagers monitor radiation and perform collaborative research | Asia | 2011- | NR |
30. Nuclear Risk Management for Native Communities | Address nuclear contamination impacts in tribal communities | US | 1994–04 | NR |
31. St. Louis baby tooth survey | Examine radioactive material absorbed into teeth of children | US | 1958–70 | NR |
32. Hazelwood Mine fire recovery effort | Develop citizen science environmental monitoring program | Australia | 2014- | EF |
Collegial research (n = 8) | ||||
1. Groninger Soil Movement | Monitor earthquakes and damage due to gas extraction | Europe | 2009- | EQ |
2. Queensland Floods | Use social media to provide data and reconstruct flood extents | Australia | 2010 | FL |
3. Historic Extreme Weather Event Reporting | Research historical documents on extreme weather events | N Am | 2016- | SW,HR,TD |
4. Community water testing in Puerto Rico | Perform water testing in Puerto Rico post-Hurricane Maria | US | 2017- | HR |
5. VGI and Santa Barbara wildfires | Map and share social media data during 2007–09 wildfires | US | 2008–09 | WF |
6. Gulf Oil Mapping Project | Map impacts after Deepwater Horizon oil spill | US | 2010 | CH |
7. iWitness Pollution Map | Report and map chemical accident reports and impacts | US | 2010- | CH |
8. Young Crowd | Assess disaster preparedness of youth environments | Europe | 2016–17 | AH |
Disaster citizen science project objectives
Disaster citizen science models
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Distributed or volunteer sensing (n = 19; 9%). Citizen scientists volunteer resources or space to facilitate data collection or analyses led by professional scientists.
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Contributory (n = 98; 47%). Citizen scientists collect data to assist research led by professional scientists.
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Distributed intelligence (n = 52; 25%). Citizen scientists perform data analyses or interpretation.
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Collaborative research (n = 32; 15%). Citizen and professional scientists collaborate in areas beyond data collection or analysis (e.g., problem definition, study design).
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Collegial research (n = 8; 4%). Citizen scientists lead research with little collaboration with professional scientists.
Overall | Distributed sensing | Contributory | Distributed intelligence | Collaborative research | Collegial research | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
209 | 19 | (9%) | 98 | (47%) | 52 | (25%) | 32 | (15%) | 8 | (4%) | ||
Disaster | ||||||||||||
Earthquake | 61 | (29%) | 18 | (95%) | 31 | (23%) | 10 | (17%) | 1 | (3%) | 1 | (10%) |
Flood | 52 | (25%) | 36 | (26%) | 11 | (19%) | 4 | (12%) | 1 | (10%) | ||
Hurricane, typhoon, cyclone | 36 | (17%) | 12 | (9%) | 16 | (28%) | 6 | (18%) | 2 | (20%) | ||
Harmful algal blooms/cyanobacteria | 18 | (9%) | 10 | (7%) | 5 | (9%) | 3 | (9%) | ||||
Severe/extreme weather | 15 | (7%) | 12 | (9%) | 2 | (3%) | 1 | (10%) | ||||
Climate change or sea level rise | 15 | (7%) | 1 | (5%) | 12 | (9%) | 2 | (3%) | ||||
Chemical contamination events | 14 | (7%) | 2 | (1%) | 10 | (30%) | 2 | (20%) | ||||
Disease outbreak | 11 | (5%) | 4 | (3%) | 5 | (9%) | 2 | (6%) | ||||
Nuclear radiation | 8 | (4%) | 2 | (1%) | 1 | (2%) | 5 | (15%) | ||||
Drought | 6 | (3%) | 4 | (3%) | 2 | (3%) | ||||||
Mud/landslides | 4 | (2%) | 4 | (3%) | ||||||||
Tornado | 4 | (2%) | 3 | (2%) | 1 | (10%) | ||||||
Volcanic activity | 4 | (2%) | 2 | (1%) | 2 | (3%) | ||||||
Wildfire | 3 | (1%) | 2 | (1%) | 1 | (10%) | ||||||
Tsunami | 2 | (1%) | 1 | (2%) | 1 | (3%) | ||||||
Lead entity | ||||||||||||
Academic/research | 94 | (45%) | 18 | (95%) | 49 | (39%) | 10 | (18%) | 15 | (33%) | 2 | (18%) |
Government | 55 | (26%) | 1 | (5%) | 46 | (37%) | 6 | (11%) | 3 | (7%) | ||
Technology | 51 | (24%) | 16 | (13%) | 34 | (62%) | 1 | (2%) | ||||
Advocacy | 23 | (11%) | 6 | (5%) | 1 | (2%) | 12 | (26%) | 4 | (36%) | ||
Collaboration | 13 | (6%) | 5 | (4%) | 2 | (4%) | 6 | (13%) | ||||
Community-based services | 6 | (3%) | 1 | (1%) | 4 | (9%) | 1 | (9%) | ||||
Individuals/loose affiliation | 5 | (2%) | 1 | (1%) | 2 | (4%) | 2 | (18%) | ||||
Volunteer services | 3 | (1%) | 1 | (1%) | 1 | (2%) | 1 | (9%) | ||||
Education | 3 | (1%) | 1 | (1%) | 1 | (2%) | 1 | (9%) | ||||
Disaster phase | ||||||||||||
Preparedness | 135 | (65%) | 17 | (50%) | 81 | (58%) | 17 | (27%) | 16 | (37%) | 4 | (33%) |
Response | 52 | (25%) | 2 | (6%) | 10 | (7%) | 34 | (54%) | 3 | (7%) | 3 | (25%) |
Recovery | 105 | (50%) | 15 | (44%) | 49 | (35%) | 12 | (19%) | 24 | (56%) | 5 | (42%) |
Location | ||||||||||||
Global | 13 | (6%) | 5 | (26%) | 5 | (5%) | 2 | (4%) | 1 | (3%) | ||
United States | 84 | (40%) | 5 | (26%) | 44 | (45%) | 10 | (19%) | 21 | (66%) | 4 | (50%) |
Northeast | 20 | (24%) | 13 | (28%) | 2 | (15%) | 5 | (22%) | ||||
Southeast | 27 | (32%) | 9 | (19%) | 2 | (15%) | 13 | (57%) | 3 | (75%) | ||
Midwest | 6 | (7%) | 2 | (40%) | 2 | (4%) | 2 | (9%) | ||||
Southwest | 8 | (10%) | 5 | (11%) | 2 | (15%) | 1 | (4%) | ||||
West | 18 | (21%) | 2 | (40%) | 10 | (21%) | 3 | (23%) | 2 | (9%) | 1 | (25%) |
National | 13 | (15%) | 1 | (20%) | 8 | (17%) | 4 | (31%) | ||||
International | 112 | (54%) | 9 | (47%) | 49 | (50%) | 40 | (77%) | 10 | (31%) | 4 | (50%) |
North America | 11 | (10%) | 1 | (11%) | 2 | (4%) | 6 | (15%) | 1 | (9%) | 1 | (25%) |
South America | 6 | (5%) | 1 | (2%) | 5 | (13%) | ||||||
Europe | 54 | (48%) | 6 | (67%) | 37 | (76%) | 7 | (18%) | 2 | (18%) | 2 | (50%) |
Asia | 23 | (21%) | 4 | (8%) | 15 | (38%) | 4 | (36%) | ||||
Africa | 7 | (6%) | 2 | (4%) | 4 | (10%) | 1 | (9%) | ||||
Australia | 10 | (9%) | 2 | (22%) | 3 | (6%) | 1 | (3%) | 3 | (27%) | 1 | (25%) |
Oceania | 2 | (2%) | 2 | (5%) | ||||||||
Technology | ||||||||||||
Internet-connected device | 159 | (76%) | 17 | (47%) | 81 | (36%) | 46 | (32%) | 7 | (15%) | 8 | (32%) |
Camera/video | 59 | (28%) | 40 | (18%) | 7 | (5%) | 7 | (15%) | 5 | (20%) | ||
Crowdsourcing reporting application | 54 | (26%) | 2 | (6%) | 39 | (17%) | 6 | (4%) | 3 | (6%) | 5 | (20%) |
Sampling equipment/monitors/sensors | 49 | (23%) | 17 | (47%) | 13 | (6%) | 6 | (4%) | 12 | (25%) | 1 | (4%) |
Online form/survey | 44 | (21%) | 38 | (17%) | 1 | (1%) | 3 | (6%) | 2 | (8%) | ||
Crowdsourcing analytical application | 43 | (21%) | 1 | (0.4%) | 40 | (28%) | 1 | (2%) | 1 | (4%) | ||
Mapping platforms/technologies | 38 | (18%) | 2 | (1%) | 32 | (23%) | 3 | (6%) | 1 | (4%) | ||
Communication device | 11 | (5%) | 6 | (3%) | 1 | (1%) | 3 | (6%) | 1 | (4%) | ||
Do-it-yourself sampling equipment | 6 | (3%) | 4 | (2%) | 1 | (1%) | 1 | (4%) | ||||
Lab equipment | 2 | (1%) | 2 | (1%) | ||||||||
None | 8 | (4%) | 1 | (0.4%) | 7 | (15%) |