Background
Methods
Design
Main outcome
Risk factors
Statistical analysis
Results
Subject characteristics
Characteristics | Overall | Amerindian | Creole | Hindustani | Javanese | Maroon | Mixed |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 5641 |
N = 427 |
N = 677 |
N = 1315 |
N = 923 |
N = 1377 |
N = 817 | |
Men % (95 % CI) | 49.7(48.4-51) | 37.6(31.7-44) | 54.4(50.6-58.2) | 52.8(50.4-55.2) | 51.2(47.7-54.6) | 43.2(40.3-46.2) | 46.3(43.1-49.6) |
Age in years, median (95 % range) | 35.0(15.0-62.0) | 35.0(16.0-62.0) | 36.0(16-62) | 37.0(16.0-62.0) | 40.0(15.0-62.2) | 30.0(15.0-61.0) | 32.0(15.0-62.0)) |
Education % (95 % CI) | |||||||
Low | 53(51.7-54.3) | 78.6(73-83.5) | 37.5(33.8-41.4) | 54.3(51.8-56.7) | 53.3(49.8-56.8) | 77.3(74.7-79.8) | 34.8(31.7-38.0) |
Middle | 27.9(26.7-29.1) | 17.8(13.2-23.1) | 34.8(31.1-38.6) | 27.9(25.7-30.1) | 32(28.8-35.4) | 14.1(12.1-16.4) | 35.4(32.3-38.6) |
High | 19.1(18.1-20.2) | 3.6(1.7-6.8) | 27.7(24.4-31.4) | 17.9(16.1-19.8) | 14.7(12.4-17.4) | 8.5(7-10.4) | 29.8(26.9-32.9) |
Income % (95 % CI) | |||||||
< SRD 800/month | 33.6(32-35.2) | 54.7(46-63) | 23.0(19.0-27.6) | 30.9(28.0-34.0) | 23.9(20.3-27.9) | 58.3(54.4-62) | 23.4(19.9-27.3) |
SRD 800-1499/month | 33.9(32.3-35.5) | 26.4(19.3-34.4) | 39.9(35.0-45.0) | 37.6(34.6-40.8) | 37.8(33.6-42.2) | 27.6(24.3-31.2) | 28.3(24.6-32.4) |
SRD 1500-2199/month | 15(13.8-16.3) | 7.2(3.5-12.7) | 16.2(12.8-20.4) | 17.2(14.9-19.7) | 19.4(16.1-23.2) | 7.5(5.6-9.8) | 16.8(13.7-20.3) |
SRD 2200/month | 17.5(16.2-18.8) | 11.7(6.7-17.9) | 20.9(17.0-25.3) | 14.3(12.2-16.7) | 18.9(15.6-22.6) | 6.7(5.0-8.9) | 31.5(27.6-35.7) |
Area % (95 % CI) | |||||||
Urban coastal | 75.5(74.3-76.6) | 31.2(25.4-37.2) | 85.8(82.9-88.3) | 83.9(82-85.6) | 70.7(67.4-56.8) | 52.3(49.2-55.3) | 85.4(83-38) |
Rural coastal | 16.1(15.1-17) | 32(26.1-38) | 14.1(11.7-17) | 16.1(14.4-18) | 29.3(26.2-35.4) | 6.9(5.5-8.7) | 14.3(12.2-38.6) |
Rural interior | 8.5(7.8-9.2) | 36.9(30.9-43.2) | 0(0-0.7) | 0(0-0.3) | 0(0-17.4) | 40.8(37.9-43.8) | 0.3(0.1-32.9) |
Living with partner % (95 % CI) | 51.7(50.4-53) | 66(59.7-71.7) | 32.3(28.8-36) | 60.4(58-62.7) | 70.7(67.4-73.8) | 40.1(37.2-43.1) | 44(40.8-47.2) |
Working or studying % (95 % CI) | 69(67.8-70.2) | 44.3(38.2-50.8) | 78.7(75.4-81.6) | 67.8(65.5-70) | 71.9(68.7-74.9) | 58.7(55.7-61.6) | 77.2(74.3-79.8) |
Smoking % (95 % CI) | 14.7(13.8-15.6) | 5.3(2.8-8.7) | 19.1(16.2-22.3) | 16.2(14.5-18.1) | 20.2(17.5-23.1) | 6.5(5.1-8.2) | 14(11.9-16.4) |
Recommended physical activity % (95 % CI) | 64.3(62.9-65.6) | 66.3(59.1-73.1) | 69.6(65.7-73.3) | 65.4(63-67.8) | 60(56.3-63.5) | 59.2(55.9-62.5) | 65.6(62.2-68.8) |
Body mass index, kg/m2, median (95 % range) | 25.7(25.6-25.9) | 26.7(18.4-40.7) | 25.5(17.6-41.0) | 26.3(17.1-39.1) | 26.1(17.8-40.1) | 24.9(17.5-41.3) | 25.8(17.2-39.8) |
Waist circumference, cm, mean (SD) | 87.3(15.6) | 90.0(14.4) | 88.2(16.3) | 89.4(15.7) | 86.0(14.9) | 84.6(15.0) | 86.4(16.0) |
Systolic blood pressure, mmHg, mean (SD) | 119.0(19.3) | 117.3(18.6) | 122.4(19.7) | 119.1(19.3) | 119.3(19.5) | 118.4(18.9) | 117.5(19.5) |
Diastolic blood pressure, mmHg, mean (SD) | 78.6(12.7) | 76.3(11.4) | 79.4(13.2) | 79.6(12.3) | 79.4(13.0) | 77.3(13.2) | 77.4(12.2) |
Age group | Systolic blood pressure | Diastolic blood pressure | BMI | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Mean ± SD (SE) | Mean ± SD (SE) | Mean ± SD (SE) | ||||
Male | Female | Male | Female | Male | Female | |
(n = 2102) | (n = 3524) | (n = 2102) | (n = 3522) | (n = 2052) | (n = 3302) | |
15-24 years | 115.1 ± 12.6 (0.5) | 102.6 ± 11.1 (0.4) | 71.5 ± 9.8 (0.4) | 69.5 ± 8.4 (0.3) | 23.0 ± 4.8 (0.2) | 24.2 ± 5.2 (0.2) |
25-34 years | 120.3 ± 13.0 (0.5) | 108.5 ± 14.4 (0.5) | 78.3 ± 10.6 (0.4) | 75.2 ± 11.8 (0.4) | 25.7 ± 5.2 (0.2) | 27.9 ± 5.9 (0.2) |
35-44 years | 123.5 ± 15.6 (0.6) | 117.4 ± 18.4 (0.8) | 82.3 ± 11.5 (0.5) | 81.2 ± 12.9 (0.5) | 26.5 ± 5.2 (0.2) | 29.1 ± 6.1 (0.3) |
45-54 years | 128.5 ± 19.0 (0.8) | 126.3 ± 20.6 (0.9) | 84.3 ± 12.5 (0.5) | 83.6 ± 12.2 (0.5) | 26.1 ± 5.1 (0.2) | 29.2 ± 5.8 (0.3) |
55-64 years | 137.9 ± 23.6 (1.4) | 134.6 ± 22.0 (1.2) | 86.6 ± 13.4 (0.8) | 84.3 ± 12.3 (0.7) | 26.2 ± 5.2 (0.3) | 29.7 ± 6.3 (0.3) |
Total pop. | 123.1 ± 17.5 (0.3) | 115.2 ± 20.1 (0.4) | 79.4 ± 12.5 (0.2) | 77.5 ± 12.8 (0.2) | 25.3 ± 5.2 (0.1) | 27.7 ± 6.2 (0.1) |
Age group | Smoking | Recommended physical activity | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
%(CI 95 %) | % (CI 95 %) | |||
Male | Female | Male | Female | |
(n = 2093) | (n = 3533) | (n = 1784) | (n = 3070) | |
15-24 years | 8.8(6.9-11.2) | 0.6(0.2-1.5) | 82.2(78.9-85.2) | 61.9(58.0-65.7) |
25-34 years | 23.1(20.0-26.6) | 3.8(2.6-5.6) | 75.5(71.6-79.0) | 55.8(51.7-59.9) |
35-44 years | 28.9(25.3-328) | 5.6(3.9-7.9) | 68.7(64.4-72.8) | 57.0(52.6-61.4) |
45-54 years | 35.9(31.8-40.2) | 7.5(5.5-10.2) | 66.0(61.4-70.3) | 55.8(51.2-60.3) |
55-64 years | 33.6(28.1-39.4) | 5.8(3.7-9.1) | 50.6(43.3-57.1) | 49.5(43.7-55.5) |
Total pop. | 24.4(22.8-26.0) | 4.3(3.6-5.1) | 71.3(69.4-73.2) | 56.9(54.9-58.9) |
Hypertension prevalence
Ethnic differences in the prevalence of hypertension in risk factor categories
Characteristics | Amerindian | Creole | Hindustani | Javanese | Maroon | Mixed |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
N = 427 |
N = 677 |
N = 1315 |
N = 923 |
N = 1377 |
N = 817 | |
Prev(CI 95 %) | Prev(CI 95 %) | Prev(CI 95 %) | Prev(CI 95 %) | Prev(CI 95 %) | Prev(CI 95 %) | |
Sex | ||||||
Male | 27.5 % (18.8 % - 37.6 %) | 28.7 % (24.2 % - 33.6 %) | 33.5 % (30.4 % - 36.7 %) | 25.7 % (21.7 % - 30.2 %) | 17.3 % (14.0 % - 21.1 %) | 23.0 % (19.2 % - 27.2 %) |
Female | 19.5 % (13.8 % - 26.8 %) | 33.9 % (28.7 % - 39.5 %) | 27.4 % (24.4 % - 30.7 %) | 32.5 % (28.0 % - 37.3 %) | 23.4 % (20.2 % - 27.0 %) | 21.2 % (17.7 % - 25.0 %) |
p = 0.161 |
p = 0.143 |
p < 0.006 |
p < 0.030 |
p < 0.014 |
p < 0.509 | |
Age group (years) | ||||||
15-24.9 | 9.0 % (3.8 % - 18.2 %) | 9.0 % (5.2 % - 14.7 %)a | 4.7 % (2.8 % - 7.6 %)a | 5.2 % (2.2 % - 9.9 %)a | 5.2 % (3.2 % - 8.3 %) | 5.2 % (3.1 % - 8.5 %)a |
25-34.9 | 13.0 % (4.7 % - 25.0 %) | 13.4 % (8.5 % - 20.1 %)a,b | 20.6 % (16.8 % - 25.0 %)a | 13.9 % (8.6 % - 20.1 %)b | 12.2 % (9.0 % - 16.3 %) | 14.9 % (10.5 % - 20.4 %)b |
35-44.9 | 25.5 % (14.8 % - 39.2 %) | 32.9 % (24.9 % - 41.7 %)b,c | 24.4 % (20.1 % - 29.2 %)b | 31.6 % (25.3 % - 38.1 %)c | 30.1 % (24.0 % - 37.1 %) | 28.0 % (21.6 % - 34.9 %)c |
45-54.9 | 38.8 % (24.9 % - 54.3 %) | 47.6 % (39.3 % - 56.3 %)c | 48.1 % (43.1 % - 53.2 %)c | 44.3 % (37.1 % - 51.6 %)d | 43.6 % (35.1 % - 52.8 %) | 36.5 % (29.0 % - 44.9 %)c |
55-64.9 | 43.6 % (25.4 % - 64.6 %) | 67.3 % (57.0 % - 76.2 %)c | 73.3 % (66.6 % - 79.3 %)d | 52.6 % (42.9 % - 62.5 %)d | 60.1 % (48.7 % - 70.7 %) | 60.3 % (49.3 % - 70.6 %)d |
p < 0.001 |
p < 0.001 |
p < 0.001 |
p < 0.001 |
p < 0.001 |
p < 0.001 | |
Living with a partner | ||||||
No | 21.8 % (13.9 % - 32.3 %) | 27.1 % (23.1 % - 31.5 %) | 22.5 % (19.4 % - 25.9 %) | 23.0 % (17.8 % - 28.8 %) | 17.1 % (14.3 % - 20.3 %) | 17.7 % (14.5 % - 21.3 %) |
Yes | 22.9 % (16.7 % - 30.0 %) | 39.1 % (32.6 % - 46.0 %) | 36.2 % (33.2 % - 39.2 %) | 31.4 % (27.7 % - 35.4 %) | 26.3 % (22.2 % - 30.8 %) | 27.4 % (23.2 % - 32.1 %) |
p < 0.161 |
p < 0.143 |
p < 0.006 |
p < 0.05 |
p < 0.05 |
p < 0.509 | |
Geographic area | ||||||
Urban area | 22.7 % (14.2 % - 33.7 %) | 30.5 % (26.8 % - 34.4 %) | 29.8 % (27.5 % - 32.3 %) | 28.1 % (24.6 % - 32.0 %) | 16.3 % (13.4 % - 19.7 %)a | 21.6 % (18.8 % - 24.6 %) |
Rural coastal area | 24.6 % (15.8 % - 35.6 %) | 34.6 % (24.9 % - 44.7 %) | 34.8 % (29.1 % - 40.7 %) | 31.1 % (25.3 % - 37.3 %) | 20.6 % (12.6 % - 32.0 %)a,b | 24.8 % (18.0 % - 33.2 %) |
Rural interior | 20.5 % (12.8 % - 30.1 %) | N/A | N/A | N/A | 26.5 % (22.5 % - 30.9 %)b | N/A |
p<0.797 |
p = 0.446 |
p = 0.113 |
p = 0.390 |
p < 0.001 |
p = 0.373 | |
Schooling | ||||||
Primary | 23.7 % (17.9 % - 30.2 %) | 30.1 % (24.3 % - 36.2 %) | 35.7 % (32.6 % - 39.0 %) | 31.2 % (26.9 % - 35.9 %) | 23.2 % (20.4 % - 26.2 %) | 21.9 % (17.6 % - 27.0 %) |
Secondary | 21.8 % (11.3 % - 37.4 %) | 34.3 % (28.0 % - 40.8 %) | 27.4 % (23.4 % - 31.8 %) | 28.1 % (22.8 % - 34.1 %) | 11.6 % (6.7 % - 17.5 %) | 21.0 % (16.8 % - 26.0 %) |
Higher | 2.6 % (2.1 % - 34.6 %) | 30.1 % (23.5 % - 37.3 %) | 18.5 % (14.2 % - 23.4 %) | 25.6 % (18.0 % - 34.4 %) | 11.6 % (6.2 % - 20.5 %) | 20.2 % (15.5 % - 25.4 %) |
p = 0.253 |
p = 0.549 |
p < 0.001 |
p = 0.440 |
p < 0.001 |
p = 0.864 | |
Working or studying | ||||||
Yes | 21.8 % (15.5 % - 29.8 %) | 35.8 % (27.9 % - 44.1 %) | 39.7 % (35.6 % - 43.9 %) | 38.1 % (31.8 % - 44.7 %) | 24.6 % (20.8 % - 29.0 %) | 26.5 % (20.9 % - 33.1 %) |
No | 23.3 % (15.8 % - 32.2 %) | 29.8 % (26.0 % - 33.9 %) | 26.4 % (23.8 % - 29.0 %) | 25.5 % (22.0 % - 29.2 %) | 18.0 % (15.2 % - 21.3 %) | 20.6 % (17.8 % - 23.8 %) |
P = 0.816 |
p = 0.178 |
p < 0.001 |
p < 0.001 |
p < 0.008 |
p < 0.057 | |
Income quintile in SRD | ||||||
Q1 < 800/month | 21.5 % (13.3 % - 32.8 %) | 18.6 % (11.5 % - 28.7 %)a | 33.9 % (28.6 % - 39.6 %) | 26.9 % (19.4 % - 35.9 %) | 24.7 % (20.6 % - 29.4 %) | 22.1 % (14.9 % - 20.2 %) |
Q2 800-1499/month | 32.7 % (18.0 % - 49.9 %) | 27.4 % (20.4 % - 35.1 %)a,b | 33.0 % (28.3 % - 38.2 %) | 27.8 % (21.8 % - 34.9 %) | 22.0 % (16.4 % - 28.9 %) | 30.9 % (23.5 % - 38.8 %) |
Q 3 1500-2199/month | 21.9 % (2.5 % - 55.8 %) | 40.3 % (27.9 % - 53.3 %)b,c | 29.1 % (22.3 % - 36.7 %) | 29.1 % (20.5 % - 39.2 %) | 26.8 % (14.8 % - 40.7 %) | 20.4 % (12.5 % - 30.2 %) |
Q4 and Q5 > 2200/month | 18.9(4.0 %-45.0 %) | 42.2 % (31.2 % - 53.7 %)c | 19.7 % (13.4 % - 27.3 %) | 29.7 % (21.1 % - 40.2 %) | 16.7 % (6.6 % - 30.0 %) | 25.8 % (19.4 % - 33.2 %) |
p = 0.732 |
p < 0.003 |
p < 0.03 |
p = 0.965 |
p = 0.558 |
p = 0.467 | |
Daily smoking | ||||||
No | 23.1 % (17.9 % - 28.9 %) | 29.0 % (25.3 % - 33.1 %) | 28.8 % (26.5 % - 31.3 %) | 29.5 % (26.0 % - 33.1 %) | 20.8 % (18.4 % - 23.5 %) | 20.0 % (17.4 % - 23.0 %) |
Yes | 12.1 % (1.8 % - 43.6 %) | 39.1 % (30.7 % - 48.1 %) | 40.0 % (34.1 % - 45.9 %) | 27.3 % (20.5 % - 34.6 %) | 20.6 % (11.4 % - 31.4 %) | 34.0 % (26.0 % - 42.7 %) |
p = 0.443 |
p < 0.023 |
p < 0.001 |
p= 0.547 |
p = 0.865 |
p < 0.001 | |
Physical activity | ||||||
< 600 MET | 29.0 % (17.9 % - 41.4 %) | 34.8 % (27.9 % - 42.4 %) | 40.4 % (36.1 % - 44.7 %) | 28.8 % (23.7 % - 34.2 %) | 23.9 % (19.7 % - 28.7 %) | 23.4 % (18.6 % - 28.7 %) |
≥ 600 MET | 18.8 % (12.2 % - 26.6 %) | 29.5 % (25.1 % - 34.2 %) | 26.1 % (23.4 % - 28.9 %) | 28.4 % (24.3 % - 32.8 %) | 18.2 % (15.1 % - 21.8 %) | 21.3 % (18.0 % - 25.0 %) |
p = 0.75 |
p = 0.354 |
p < 0.001 |
p = 0.775 |
p < 0.05 |
p = 0.417 | |
Body mass index | ||||||
< 23 | 18.4 % (9.1 % - 33.0 %) | 12.4 % (8.2 % - 17.6 %)a | 14.3 % (11.3 % - 18.0 %) | 8.7 % (5.5 % - 13.4 %) | 11.3 % (8.4 % - 15.0 %)a | 9.8 % (6.5 % - 13.7 %)a |
23-24.9 | 20.4 % (10.5 % - 35.1 %) | 17.9 % (10.6 % - 26.6 %)a | 29.4 % (23.1 % - 35.9 %) | 22.9 % (15.3 % - 31.7 %) | 9.5 % (5.2 % - 15.2 %)a | 12.5 % (7.4 % - 19.0 %)a |
25-27.5 | 17.3 % (7.0 % - 31.6 %) | 41.1 % (30.4 % - 52.1 %)b | 31.8 % (26.6 % - 37.4 %) | 35.3 % (27.5 % - 43.8 %)a | 23.3 % (16.8 % - 30.9 %)b | 21.3 % (15.1 % - 29.1 %)b |
27.5-30 | 14.0 % (5.6 % - 29.4 %) | 49.7 % (38.3 % - 61.0 %)b | 39.1 % (33.0 % - 45.4 %)a | 36.6 % (28.1 % - 45.3 %)a,b | 24.4 % (17.0 % - 32.7 %)b | 29.0 % (21.1 % - 37.9 %)b |
≥ 30 | 33.8 % (22.8 % - 45.6 %) | 44.8 % (37.6 % - 52.3 %)b | 44.2 % (39.4 % - 49.2 %)a | 46.1 % (38.9 % - 53.3 %)b | 39.4 % (33.2 % - 45.7 %) | 40.1 % (33.7 % - 46.7 %) |
p = 0.111 |
p < 0.001 |
p < 0.001 |
p < 0.001 |
p < 0.001 |
p < 0.001 | |
Waist circumference | ||||||
Normal | 18.3 % (12.6 % - 25.8 %) | 24.6 % (20.6 % - 29.0 %) | 21.7 % (19.2 % - 24.3 %) | 21.6 % (18.3 % - 25.2 %) | 12.6 % (10.3 % - 15.3 %) | 15.4 % (12.7 % - 18.5 %) |
High | 30.8 % (21.5 % - 40.9 %) | 46.3 % (39.7 % - 53.3 %) | 46.4 % (42.3 % - 50.5 %) | 49.2 % (42.5 % - 56.1 %) | 39.1 % (33.6 % - 44.7 %) | 40.2 % (34.1 % - 46.4 %) |
p < 0.001 |
p < 0.001 |
p < 0.001 |
p < 0.001 |
p < 0.001 |
p = 0.033 |
Ethnic differences between the odds ratios of hypertension
Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | |
---|---|---|---|---|
OR (CI) | OR (CI) | OR (CI) | OR (CI) | |
Hindustani | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Creole | 1.0(0.8-1.2) | 1.0(0.7-1.3) | 1.0(0.8-1.2) | 1.0(0.8-1.3) |
Javanese | 0.9(0.7-1.1) | 0.8(0.1-1.0)* | 0.9(0.7-1.1) | 1.0(0.8-1.2) |
Mixed | 0.8(0.7-1.0) | 0.9(0.7-1.2) | 0.8(0.6-1.0) | 0.9(0.7-1.1) |
Maroon | 0.9(0.7-1.0) | 0.9(0.6-1.2) | 0.8(0.7-1.0) | 0.8(0.7-1.0) |
Amerindian | 0.7(0.6-1)* | 0.5(0.4-0.8)* | 0.7(0.5-1.0) | 0.7(0.5-0.9)* |