Ethnophytotherapeutical research in the high Molise region (Central-Southern Italy)

The ethnobotanicity index (E.I.) according Portères (ratio between the useful plants and the total flora, expressed as a percentage) [48] is 6 % for medicinal plants (9,75 % if referred to all the useful plants according unpublished data of the authors). This means that 6 % of the plants are known to be useful in folk medicine. Comparing this index with that of other small territories [42] (data obtained from the authors mainly with Pharmacy Degree Theses realized in Spain) we can observe that the degree of knowledge of medicinal plants (in folk medicine and veterinary science) and useful plants in the upper Molise region is lower than in the Spanish region of L'Alt Empordà (11'%), considered provisional by the authors since the area was not completely studied from the ethnobotanical point of view. The indexes of the upper Molise are similar to that of Córdoba (8.8%), but much lower than those of Les Guilleries (20%), Caurel (27.9%) and a further three Spanish territories [42]. We also compared the E.I. of the upper Molise region with that of other Italian areas (Friuli-Venezia Giulia region [49], Majella (Abruzzo) [50], Latium region [26], Acquapendente (Latium) [36, 51], Maratea (Basilicata) [37, 52, 53]) and of Italy as a whole [54]. These values were obtained by dividing the number of species cited in folk medicine and veterinary science (or in all sectors of ethnobotanical knowledge) of each area by the number of species of the respective floras [21, 55, 56]. We can note (see Table 3) that the values of E.I. in the selected Italian areas are between 3.83 % and 10,75 % (upper Molise, Acquapendente, Maratea) [36, 37, 51‐53]. Instead, the values for the entire country [54] are higher (from 14.24 % to 17.57 %). These Italian values of E.I. are generally lower than the corresponding ones for Spanish, perhaps due to a more rapid process of cultural erosion in Italy. Nevertheless, it appear that the indexes of the Spanish areas were calculated, according Portères, on all the plants used by the informants or at least on the plants known and for which the informants gave a name, and not only on medicinal plants (J. Vallès, personal communication). Complete folk knowledge of plants is greatly appreciated in scientific ethnobotanical research in Spain, also by pharmacobotanists, while in Italy many aspects of this research are often entrusted to the good will of single researchers.

The predominance of external over internal uses, and of dermatological pathologies treated in folk medicine of upper Molise can be connected with the many rural activities. In fact wounds, insect bites, blisters etc. (main disturbances in skin diseases) are the most common incidents in field activities and in woodcutters' work. Within the category of skin ailments, wounds represent 48 %, whilst insect bites account for 19%. Digestive disturbances (the second category of illnesses in order of importance) are again quite important considered in the folk medicine of upper Molise, given the large quantity of plants available containing bitter substances, mucilages and essential oils useful in cases of gastritis, colitis, intestinal worms etc. Furthermore, they can be linked to the cold during bad seasons. Respiratory pathologies (the third category of illnesses represented) are connected with the very cold climate in winter.

Amongst the medicinal uses, certain practises would appear to be recorded for the first time (the active ingredients are reported above all by Anzalone [57], Gastaldo [22] and Guarrera [26]). Amongst the most important results of our research we wish to cite: Lobaria pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm., thallus applied on cuts, an unreported usage. The plant contains antiseptic lichen acids [57], phenolic substances [58], hydrocarbons, sterols – among which ergosterol, episterol, fecosterol, lichesterol -, fatty acids [59, 60] and depsidones [61]; the efficacy is confirmed by its anti-ulcer and anti-inflammatory properties [58, 62]. Lichen is one of the plants that is most sensitive to the aerial pollution [63] and it indicates an uncontaminated environment. Therefore areas where this lichen grows could be the more suitable for the cultivation of medicinal plants, small wood fruits etc. L. pulmonaria was widely used as a cicatrising agent and antiseptic in the council areas of Pescolanciano, Pietrabbondante and Chiauci. The area is dominated by silver firs (on which this lichen grows) mixed with Turkey oaks and beech trees at higher altitudes. Carbon production (especially from beech) probably once represented an important resource for the villages concerned. Instead, near the council areas of Vastogirardi and Castiglione, on the other side of the mountain, the main activities were agriculture and sheep-farming. In these villages we found no trace of the use of pulmonary lichen, but the limited number of species of moss were used as cicatrising and anti-haemorrhagic agents, as well as a mushroom of the Lycoperdon genus (spores). This last rare use is reported by Lomagno and Lomagno Caramiello [64], Atzei [34], Agelet and Vallès [65].

Amongst the most important veterinary uses (see Table 1) we quote: Valeriana officinalis L., a decoction of roots and leaves (new use) or oil mixed with soot for treating wounds in mules; Urtica dioica L subsp. dioica, the leaves used as fodder for turkeys suffering from rubella and an infusion applied with poultices for bruising in cattle; olive oil, clay and sugar for repairing fractures horns in cattle; stalks of burnt wheat mixed with olive oil and applied to cuts and wounds [79]. Almost all the uses in this field have nowadays been abandoned.

We wish to emphasise the widespread knowledge of the following uses, which were mentioned in almost every single interview (see Additional file 1).

Amongst the most interesting ritual uses reports we find Clematis vitalba L., branches of which were wound 7 times around the necks of sheep which appeared to be particularly nervous (a similar use was described by Atzei [34]) and broom (Spartium junceum L.) and silver fir (Abies alba Miller) for making the characteristic torches carried during the traditional " 'ndocciata". The magical use of a sorghum broom is also described by Conti [2]. "Ferrato", or "iron" oil used to be made from olive oil usually cooked in a frying-pan with three nails: the unguent was used on both humans and animals for treating cuts, burns and earache (in these recipes the ritual use of iron was combined with the curative properties of the oil). The oil was rubbed into the forearm to cure throat inflammations, combined with beeswax it was used for treating scalds and, as a paste, for itchiness. Other medicinal uses are also connected with rituals. For example, a decoction of 3 roots of mallow, 3 of nettle and 3 of coltsfoot was used for stomach-ache, the ritual use of 3 being introduced into the recipe, just as the use of an odd number of each ingredient (1–3–5–7, etc.) is important in others cases.

At the end of the winter, in the period of Easter, young girls of Molise used to ask the "blessed palm" (Olea europaea L.) for their beloved, the leaves then being thrown on to burning coals for a sign or divination [2].

The presence of many rituals linked with officinal uses, and of several agricultural feasts of the grain [18], is a remainder of the pagan culture of the Romans and of even earlier populations.

A small archaeological bronze tablet ("Tavola Osca"), now kept in the British Museum in London, illustrates this agricultural background of the local culture. The tablet was found near the Monte del Cerro, between Capracotta and Agnone, in the place named "Uorte", that is to say kitchen garden (Hortus in Latin language and Hùrz on the tablet). We can learn from this very important tablet, dating back to 250 B.C., that the place was devoted to Kerrer (the goddess Cerere). According to this tablet, a sacrifice was made to four divinities near a sanctuary at the time of the Floralia feasts. On the tablet, several agricultural divinities are named, including: Cerere; Persefone (daughter of Cerere); Maia, Italic goddess of the spring; Flora, protector of the shoots) [88].

Besides, over two hundred years ago, the Molise region came under the spiritual administration of Benevento, a centre of ritual and witchcraft (see the famous Benevento walnut, around which witches use to dance). This influence was undoubtedly extremely strong in villages of the Molise, to the extent that Cardinal Orsini, later Pope Benedict XII, condemned certain superstitious practices in his LI edict, these practices being listed in Moffa [4].

During the research activity, certain questions were asked during the interviews relating more generally to the animal world so as to obtain information that can help us have at least a partial understanding of the ethno-biological customs of this region. Further data was obtained from the papers consulted [2‐4, 89]. Certain vegetable (ash and soot) and mineral uses are also reported (see Table 2). Some plant-derived products were not included in the main table (Additional file 1) for these reasons: a) cinders come from undetermined plants b) the information on the earwax applied with a Hyoscyamus sp. leave comes from a bibliographical reference and not from field research.