Introduction
Material & methods
Data source
Study population
Measures
Variable name | Question | Response options | Measured variable |
---|---|---|---|
Outcome variable | |||
Food insecurity | Over the years, (1) did you ever reduce the size of your meal? (2) did you eat enough food of your choice? (3) were you hungry but didn’t eat because there was not enough food in your household? (4) did you ever not eat for a whole day because there was not enough food in your household? and (5) do you think you have lost weight in the last 12 months because there was not enough food in your household? | 1 = Yes, 2 = No | Participants who responded affirmatively to one or more questions were classified as 1 “food insecure”; otherwise, they were classified as 0 “food secure” [42] Note: For affirmative response, we reversed the code of second question |
Main explanatory variable | |||
Multimorbidity | Has any health professional ever diagnosed you with the following chronic conditions or diseases? 1. Hypertension 2. Diabetes mellitus 3. Cancer or malignant tumor 4. Chronic lung diseases 5. Chronic heart disease 6. Stroke 7. Bone-related diseases 8. Neurological/psychiatric diseases 9. High cholesterol | 1 = Yes, 2 = No | Participants with two or more diseases were classified as 1 “Multimorbidity” and with no or single chronic disease as 0 “No multimorbidity” |
Covariates | Categories |
---|---|
Gender | 1 = Men 2 = Women |
Age-group (in years) | 1 = 45–59 (Middle-aged) 2 = 60 or more (Older aged) |
Place of residence | 1 = Urban 2 = Rural |
Educational attainment | 1 = No education 2 = Less than five years 3 = 5–10 years completed, 4 = 10 or more years of schooling |
Marital status | 1 = Not currently in marital union 2 = Currently in marital union |
Religion | 1 = Hindu 2 = Muslim 3 = Others |
Monthly per capita expenditure (MPCE) | 1 = Poor (representing poorest and poor) 2 = Middle 3 = Rich (representing richest and rich) |
Physical activity | 1 = Frequent 2 = Rare 3 = Never |
Currently smoking | 0 = No (Never/Not currently smoking 1 = Yes (Currently smoking) |
Alcohol use | 0 = No 1 = Yes |
Nutritional status | 1 = Underweight (BMI ≤ 18.4 kg/m2) 2 = Normal (BMI 18.5 to 24.9 kg/m2) 3 = Overweight (BMI 25 to 29.9 kg/m2) 4 = Obese (BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2) |
Activities of daily living (ADL) | 0 = No (No limitation in ADL) 1 = Yes (One or more limitation in ADL) |
Instrumental activities of daily living (IADL) | 0 = No (No limitation in IADL) 1 = Yes (One or more limitation in IADL) |
Regional geography | 1 = North 2 = Central 3 = East 4 = Northeast 5 = West 6 = South |
Statistical analysis
Results
Characteristics of the participants
Variables | Category | N | % |
---|---|---|---|
Age (in years) | 45–59 | 24,754 | 50.42 |
60 or more | 22,199 | 49.58 | |
Gender | Male | 21,826 | 45.91 |
Female | 25,127 | 54.09 | |
Residence | Rural | 32,623 | 72.18 |
Urban | 14,321 | 27.82 | |
Educational attainment | No Education | 24,674 | 55.93 |
less than 5 years | 5,721 | 10.96 | |
5–9 years completed | 10,042 | 18.87 | |
10 or more years of schooling | 6,515 | 14.24 | |
Marital Status | Currently in marital union | 35,061 | 73.66 |
Not in marital union | 11,892 | 26.34 | |
Living alone | No | 45,177 | 96.09 |
Yes | 1,776 | 3.91 | |
Working status | No | 23,707 | 51.13 |
Yes | 23,237 | 48.87 | |
Religion | Hindu | 34,844 | 84.49 |
Muslim | 4,527 | 8.68 | |
Others | 7,581 | 6.83 | |
MPCE Quintile | Poor | 20,795 | 45.26 |
Middle | 9,485 | 20.41 | |
Rich | 16,673 | 34.34 | |
ADL disability | No | 40,503 | 83.86 |
Yes | 6,450 | 16.14 | |
IADL disability | No | 31,134 | 61.57 |
Yes | 15,819 | 38.43 | |
SRH | Good | 19,130 | 37.38 |
Poor | 27,188 | 62.62 | |
Current smoker | No | 39,944 | 86.39 |
Yes | 6,621 | 13.61 | |
Alcohol use | No | 40,809 | 89.65 |
Yes | 5,774 | 10.35 | |
Physical activity | Frequent | 5,533 | 57.55 |
Ever | 4,012 | 12.57 | |
Never | 21,919 | 29.88 | |
Nutritional Status | Normal weight | 22,900 | 23.52 |
Underweight | 8,850 | 51.82 | |
Overweight/obese | 10,840 | 24.65 | |
Regional geography | North | 6,280 | 9.98 |
Central | 7,046 | 21.33 | |
East | 7,809 | 21.44 | |
North East | 6,983 | 3.35 | |
West | 5,667 | 14.47 | |
South | 13,168 | 29.42 | |
Total | 46,953 | 100 |
Association between explanatory variables and multimorbidity
Variables | Category | % | p-value | aOR (95% CI) |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age (in years) | 45–59 | 21.62 | < 0.001 | Ref |
60 or more | 13.04 | 1.72*** (1.48,2.01) | ||
Gender | Women | 18.17 | < 0.001 | Ref |
Men | 16.27 | 1.25** (1.05,1.49) | ||
Residence | Rural | 26.5 | < 0.001 | Ref |
Urban | 13.75 | 1.46*** (1.24,1.72) | ||
Educational attainment | No Education | 14.74 | < 0.001 | Ref |
less than 5 years | 17.82 | 1.25** (1.06,1.47) | ||
5–9 years | 19.28 | 1.26* (1.03,1.51) | ||
10 or more years | 24.29 | 1.51** (1.14,2.01) | ||
Marital Status | Currently in marital union | 16.15 | < 0.001 | Ref |
Not in marital union | 20.5 | 1.05 (0.89,1.24) | ||
Living alone | No | 17.17 | < 0.001 | Ref |
Yes | 20.39 | 1.03 (0.76,1.4) | ||
Currently working | Yes | 10.52 | < 0.001 | Ref |
No | 23.78 | 1.79*** (1.56,2.07) | ||
Religion | Hindu | 16.41 | < 0.001 | Ref |
Muslim | 24.79 | 1.25** (1.04,1.50) | ||
Others | 18.65 | 0.94 (0.75,1.18) | ||
MPCE Quintile | Poor | 12.95 | < 0.001 | Ref |
Middle | 16.8 | 1.24** (1.05,1.46) | ||
Rich | 23.44 | 1.74*** (1.49,2.02) | ||
ADL disability | No | 14.91 | < 0.001 | Ref |
Yes | 29.71 | 1.45*** (1.24,1.69) | ||
IADL disability | No | 13.37 | < 0.001 | Ref |
Yes | 23.58 | 1.42*** (1.24,1.65) | ||
SRH | Good | 7.85 | < 0.001 | Ref |
Poor | 22.83 | 3.01*** (2.53,3.58) | ||
Current smoker | No | 11.31 | < 0.001 | Ref |
Yes | 18.3 | 1.21* (1.01,1.45) | ||
Alcohol use | No | 18 | < 0.001 | Ref |
Yes | 11.58 | 1.27** (1.06,1.53) | ||
Physical activity | Frequent | 15.76 | < 0.001 | Ref |
Ever | 16.66 | 1.12 (0.96,1.33) | ||
Never | 20.74 | 1.13** (0.97,1.29) | ||
Nutritional Status | Normal weight | 14.64 | < 0.001 | Ref |
Underweight | 9.22 | 0.55*** (0.47,0.65) | ||
Overweight/obese | 28.02 | 1.87*** (1.55,2.26) | ||
Regional geography | Central | 9.2 | < 0.001 | Ref |
North | 15.82 | 1.66*** (1.39,1.98) | ||
East | 14.76 | 1.77*** (1.50,2.10) | ||
North East | 9.91 | 1.12 (0.9,1.38) | ||
West | 18.93 | 1.86*** (1.56,2.23) | ||
South | 25.54 | 2.02*** (1.68,2.45) | ||
Total | 17.29 | |||
Pseduo R2 | 0.1542 |
Association between multimorbidity and food insecurity
Variables | Category | % | p-value |
---|---|---|---|
Multimorbidity | No | 46.06 | < 0.001 |
Yes | 51.16 | ||
Age-group (in years) | 45–59 Years | 46.33 | 0.021 |
60 + (Older aged) | 47.32 | ||
Gender | Women | 47.76 | 0.068 |
Men | 45.97 | ||
Residence | Rural | 47.91 | < 0.001 |
Urban | 44.38 | ||
Educational attainment | No Education | 48.89 | < 0.001 |
less than 5 years | 48.38 | ||
5–9 years | 43.31 | ||
10 or more years | 42.94 | ||
Marital Status | Currently in marital union | 45.61 | < 0.001 |
Not in marital union | 50.65 | ||
Living alone | No | 46.58 | < 0.001 |
Yes | 55.91 | ||
Currently working | Yes | 46.1 | < 0.001 |
No | 47.74 | ||
Religion | Hindu | 46.84 | < 0.001 |
Muslim | 45.37 | ||
Others | 50.16 | ||
MPCE Quintile | Poor | 48.38 | < 0.001 |
Middle | 46.26 | ||
Rich | 45.44 | ||
ADL disability | No | 46.33 | < 0.001 |
Yes | 50.07 | ||
IADL disability | No | 47.06 | 0.741 |
Yes | 46.75 | ||
SRH | Good | 40.76 | < 0.001 |
Poor | 50.65 | ||
Current smoker | No | 47.13 | 0.703 |
Yes | 45.7 | ||
Alcohol use | No | 46.68 | 0.422 |
Yes | 46.95 | ||
Physical activity | Frequent | 44.24 | < 0.001 |
Ever | 48.46 | ||
Never | 51.5 | ||
Nutritional Status | Normal weight | 46.41 | < 0.001 |
Underweight | 51.14 | ||
Overweight/obese | 43.03 | ||
Regional geography | Central | 49.63 | < 0.001 |
North | 62.14 | ||
East | 54.28 | ||
North East | 50.89 | ||
West | 61.55 | ||
South | 47.63 | ||
Total | 46.94 |
Variables | Category | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 | Model 5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
uOR | aOR (95% CI) | aOR (95% CI) | aOR (95% CI) | aOR (95% CI) | ||
Multimorbidity | No | Ref | Ref | |||
Yes | 1.22*** (1.04,1.45) | 1.28** (1.09,1.5) | 1.23** (1.05,1.43) | |||
Age (in years) | 45–59 | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
60 + | 0.96 (0.87,1.01) | 0.88** (0.80,0.97) | 0.88** (0.80,0.97) | |||
Gender | Female | Ref | Ref | |||
Male | 1.03 (0.92,1.16) | 1.02 (0.92,1.14) | 1.02 (0.92,1.14) | |||
Residence | Rural | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Urban | 0.85** (0.76,0.95) | 0.92 (0.82,1.02) | 0.92 (0.82,1.02) | 0.92 (0.82,1.02) | ||
Education | No Education | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | |
less than 5 years | 1.02 (0.9,1.14) | 0.97 (0.87,1.09) | 0.97 (0.87,1.09) | 0.97 (0.87,1.09) | ||
5–9 years | 0.83** (0.73,0.94) | 0.83** (0.73,0.94) | 0.83** (0.73,0.94) | 0.83** (0.73,0.94) | ||
10 or more years | 0.82* (0.65,1.03) | 0.76* (0.62,0.95) | 0.76* (0.62,0.95) | 0.76* (0.62,0.94) | ||
Marital Status | Currently in union | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | |
Not in union | 1.13** (1.01,1.28) | 1.08 (0.96,1.22) | 1.08 (0.96,1.22) | 1.09 (0.96,1.22) | ||
Living alone | No | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | |
Yes | 1.21 (1,1.47) | 1.27** (1.04,1.56) | 1.27** (1.04,1.55) | 1.27** (1.04,1.55) | ||
Currently working | Yes | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | |
No | 1.03 (0.93,1.14) | 0.98 (0.9,1.08) | 0.98 (0.9,1.08) | 0.98 (0.9,1.08) | ||
Religion | Hindu | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | |
Muslim | 0.93 (0.74,1.16) | 0.92 (0.79,1.08) | 0.92 (0.78,1.08) | 0.92 (0.78,1.08) | ||
Others | 1.23* (1.01,1.51) | 1.25* (1.03,1.52) | 1.25* (1.03,1.52) | 1.25* (1.03,1.51) | ||
MPCE Quintile | Rich | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | |
Poor | 1.16 *** (1.05,1.28) | 1.11* (1,1.23) | 1.11* (1,1.23) | 1.11* (1,1.23) | ||
Middle | 1.06 (0.92,1.21) | 1.02 (0.88,1.17) | 1.02 (0.88,1.17) | 1.01 (0.88,1.17) | ||
ADL disability | No | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Yes | 1.2*** (1.06,1.37) | 1.21** (1.06,1.37) | 1.2** (1.06,1.37) | |||
IADL disability | No | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Yes | 0.8*** (0.72,0.88) | 0.8*** (0.72,0.88) | 0.8*** (0.72,0.88) | |||
SRH | Good | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Poor | 1.36*** (1.25,1.49) | 1.36*** (1.25,1.49) | 1.36*** (1.24,1.49) | |||
Current smoker | No | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Yes | 1.06 (0.96,1.18) | 1.06 (0.96,1.18) | 1.06 (0.95,1.18) | |||
Alcohol use | No | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Yes | 1.1* (0.99,1.23) | 1.1* (0.99,1.23) | 1.1* (0.98,1.23) | |||
Physical activity | Frequent | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Ever | 1.25*** (1.12,1.39) | 1.25 (1.12,1.39) | 1.25*** (1.12,1.39) | |||
Never | 1.35*** (1.23,1.49) | 1.35 (1.23,1.49) | 1.35*** (1.23,1.49) | |||
Nutritional Status | Normal weight | Ref | Ref | Ref | ||
Underweight | 1.18** (1.07,1.3) | 1.18** (1.07,1.3) | 1.18** (1.07,1.3) | |||
Overweight/obese | 0.86* (0.76,0.98) | 0.86* (0.76,0.98) | 0.87* (0.77,0.98) | |||
Regional geography | Central | Ref | Ref | Ref | Ref | |
North | 0.59*** (0.53,0.66) | 0.6*** (0.54,0.67) | 0.6*** (0.54,0.67) | 0.6*** (0.54,0.67) | ||
East | 0.8* (0.73,0.89) | 0.84** (0.76,0.93) | 0.84** (0.76,0.93) | 0.84** (0.76,0.93) | ||
Northeast | 0.93*** (0.82,1.05) | 1.02 (0.9,1.15) | 1.02 (0.9,1.15) | 1.01 (0.89,1.15) | ||
West | 0.62** (0.55,0.7) | 0.64*** (0.56,0.72) | 0.64 ***(0.56,0.72) | 0.63*** (0.56,0.72) | ||
South | 1.12*** (1,1.26) | 1.2** (1.06,1.35) | 1.2 **(1.06,1.35) | 1.19** (1.06,1.34) | ||
Multimorbidity # Age group | Yes # Aged 45–59 years | Ref | ||||
No # Aged 45–59 years | 0.77* (0.59,0.99) | |||||
No # Aged over 60 years | 0.69* (0.54,0.89) | |||||
Yes # Aged over 60 years | 0.83** (0.71,0.98) | |||||
Multimorbidity # Gender | Yes # Women | Ref | ||||
No # Women | 0.88 (0.72,1.08) | |||||
No # Men | 0.87 (0.71,1.05) | |||||
Yes # Men | 1.21** (1.02,1.43) | |||||
Pseudo R2 | 0.0011 | 0.0153 | 0.262 | 0.263 | 0.264 |