1. Background
2. Methods
2.1. Setting and Sampling
2.2. Data
2.3. Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Socioeconomic profile
Mean (± SE)a
| |
---|---|
Income-proxy p.p.p.m (PPP$)b
| 32.41 (± 0.29)***** |
Asset-indexc
| 0.00 (± 0.03)***** |
Household size | 4.76 (± 0.02)***** |
Ratio infants (0-4) in household | 0.082 (± 0.002)**** |
Ratio elderly (60 and older) in household | 0.075 (± 0.002)**** |
% of total | |
Casted
| |
Scheduled Tribe | 30.0 |
Scheduled Caste | 22.3 |
Other Backward Caste | 31.3 |
General Caste | 16.5 |
Education level household head | |
No education | 51.4 |
Class 1-5 | 22.2 |
Class 6-10 | 23.8 |
Class 11 and higher | 2.7 |
Occupation household head | |
Self-employed agriculture | 38.7 |
Self-employed business/trade | 16.1 |
Regular Salaried employee | 4.6 |
Daily wage labourer | 30.8 |
Not working | 9.9 |
Source of drinking water | |
Own tap | 9.9 |
Shared tap | 53.9 |
Hand-pump/well | 36.2 |
Toilet facility | |
Own flush toilet | 4.4 |
Own pit toilet | 4.9 |
Shared toilet | 1.0 |
No toilet | 89.7 |
3.2. Morbidity, healthcare availability, utilization and cost
Mean (± SE)a
| |
---|---|
Total health expenditure last year for household (PPP$)b
| 167.34 (± 5.14) |
Distance to preferred hospital (in minutes) | 52.48 (± 0.54) |
Distance to preferred primary care practitioner (in minutes) | 30.40 (± 0.40) |
% of total | |
Household with chronic ill person | 10.5 |
Household with hospitalization costs last year | 23.5 |
Household with outpatient care costs last year | 83.8 |
Household with maternity costs last year | 14.4 |
Household with any healthcare costs last year | 85.1 |
Hospital household usually goes to | |
Private | 6.3 |
Public | 93.7 |
Preferred primary care practitioner household usually goes to | |
Traditional healer | 36.6 |
Government facility | 50.4 |
Unqualified private doctor (non-MBBS)c
| 7.6 |
AYUSH practitionerd
| 3.2 |
Qualified private doctor/specialist (MBBS) | 2.2 |
3.3. Healthcare financing
3.4. Parameters influencing the risk of hardship financing
Coefficient | 95% Confidence interval | ||
---|---|---|---|
Socioeconomic and demographic parameters
| |||
Log income-proxya
| 0.1197 | -0.0694 | 0.3089 |
Asset-indexb
| -0.1176*** | -0.1698 | -0.0655 |
Employment household head | |||
Salaried employee |
Reference
| ||
Self-employed in agriculture | 0.8420** | 0.3307 | 1.3533 |
Self-employed in business/trade | 0.7521** | 0.2176 | 1.2866 |
Daily wage labourer | 0.9204** | 0.4005 | 1.4404 |
Not working | 0.7824** | 0.2145 | 1.3503 |
Education household head | |||
No education |
Reference
| ||
Class 1-5 | -0.0831 | -0.2991 | 0.1329 |
Class 6-10 | -0.1719 | -0.3930 | 0.0492 |
Class 11 and higher | -0.0340 | -0.6023 | 0.5343 |
Castec
| |||
Scheduled Caste | -0.1293 | -0.4347 | 0.1761 |
Scheduled Tribe | 0.2173 | -0.0632 | 0.4978 |
Other Backward Caste | -0.1570 | -0.4255 | 0.1116 |
General Caste |
Reference
| ||
Household size | 0.0370*** | -0.0135 | 0.0876 |
Ratio infants (0-4) in household | 0.2015 | -0.4490 | 0.8520 |
Ratio elderly (60+) in household | 0.1851 | -0.3583 | 0.7284 |
Source of water | |||
Own tap |
Reference
| ||
Shared tap | 0.4873** | 0.1733 | 0.8013 |
Hand pump/Well | 0.3540* | 0.0286 | 0.6794 |
Type of toilet | |||
Own flush toilet |
Reference
| ||
Own pit toilet | 0.0556 | -0.5192 | 0.6305 |
Shared toilet | 0.7037 | -0.2623 | 1.6697 |
No toilet | -0.0607 | -0.4942 | 0.3728 |
Morbidity parameters and health expenditures
| |||
Log health expenditures last year | 0.7232*** | 0.6365 | 0.8099 |
Chronic illness in household | |||
No chronic ill |
Reference
| ||
Chronic ill | 0.3779** | 0.1301 | 0.6257 |
Hospitalization in household last year | |||
No hospitalization |
Reference
| ||
Hospitalization | 0.7225*** | 0.5335 | 0.9116 |
SHG membership in household
| |||
No SHG member |
Reference
| ||
SHG memberd
| 0.2184** | 0.0536 | 0.3833 |
Location of residence
| |||
Khorda district |
Reference
| ||
Kalahandi district | 1.3776*** | 1.1376 | 1.6176 |
Malkangiri district | 0.1739 | -0.0947 | 0.4424 |
Constant | -9.5496*** | -11.1226 | -7.9766 |
N | 4121 | ||
Likelihood ratio test: | |||
LR chi2(27) | 1025.76 | ||
Prob > chi2 | 0.00 | ||
Pearson goodness-of-fit test: | |||
Pearson chi2(4091) | 3930.87 | ||
Prob > chi2 | 0.96 |
Socioeconomic and demographic parameters
Morbidity parameters & health expenditures
3.5. Impact of SHG membership on hardship financing
3.6. Impact of location on hardship financing
Parameter | Kalahandi | Khorda | Malkangiri |
---|---|---|---|
% of sampled household that reported illness last month | 62.3% | 61.6% | 51.3%††† d
|
% of sampled household that had outpatient treatment last month | 60.7% | 59.8% | 49.1%††† d
|
Outpatient cost of household that reported illness last month (± SE) (PPP$)a
| 56.65 (± 2.21) | 71.74 (± 3.39) | 34.78 (± 1.77) ***e
|
Income-proxy p.p.p.m. (± SE) (PPP$)b
| 29.94 (± 0.48) | 36.16 (± 0.54) | 31.35 (± 0.46) ***b)
|
Asset-index (± SE)c
| -0.70 (± 0.04) | 1.36 (± 0.06) | -0.62 (± 0.05) ***f
|
% of household with healthcare expenditures that reported borrowing from relatives and/or friends | 15.6% | 23.7% | 14.2%††† g
|