Background
Methods
Study design
Ethical consideration
Study area
Subjects
Sample size and sample selection
Exposure assessment
Name of vegetable | |
---|---|
Alefu (Amaranth) | |
Fresh Kenaf/roselle | |
Dry kenaf/roselle | |
Dry okra fruit | |
Fresh Okra fruit | |
Okra leaves | |
Cassava leaves | |
Cowpea leaves | |
Jute mallow | |
Bitter leaves | |
Dried baobab leaves | |
Dried baobab leaves | |
Pumpkin fruit | |
Pumpkin leaves | |
Garden eggs | |
Africa might shade | |
Tomatoes | |
Moringa leaves | |
Fresh red pepper | |
Dried red pepper | |
Onions | |
Carrot | |
Cabbage | |
Sweet pepper | |
Sprout onion | |
Cucumber | |
Unripe beans |
SF-36v2 and quality of life
Anthropometry
Household hunger scale (HHS)
Wealth index
Other covariates
Statistical analysis
Recoding of variables for statistical analysis
Analysis
Results
Population characteristics
Variables | Terciles of vegetable consumption in the past 30 days | Overall n = 187 | P-trend | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Low (n = 62) | Moderate (n = 63) | High (n = 62) | |||
Vegetable intake (g/day) | |||||
Mean ± SD | 134.3 ± 42.9 | 285.5 ± 51.6 | 554.7 ± 143.3 | 324.6 ± 196.1 | <.0001* |
Median (IQR) | 122.2 (92.3, 178.7) | 289.0 (239.0, 325.8) | 517.8 (428.2, 676.0) | 289.0 (178.7, 428.2) | <.0001* |
Frequency of intake1 (Mean ± SD) | 7.0 ± 2.2 | 8.4 ± 2.0 | 9.4 ± 3.0 | 8.3 ± 2.6 | <.0001 |
Age | |||||
Mean ± SD | 38.6 ± 11.6 | 38.1 ± 10.6 | 38.4 ± 11.9 | 38.1 ± 11.2 | 0.98 |
Median (IQR) | 38.0 (29.0, 45.0) | 36.0 (40.0, 45.0) | 35.0 (30.0, 45.0) | 36.0 (30.0, 45.0) | 0.96 |
BMI | |||||
Mean ± SD | 21.9 ± 3.5 | 21.7 ± 3.4 | 23.0 ± 14.8 | 22.2 ± 9.0 | 0.69 |
Underweight | 9.7 | 19.1 | 14.5 | 14.4 | 0.55 |
Normal weight | 71.0 | 66.7 | 75.8 | 71.1 | |
Overweight | 17.7 | 12.7 | 8.1 | 12.8 | |
Obese | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.6 | |
Household hunger | 0.84 | ||||
Little/no hunger | 83.9 | 76.2 | 77.4 | 79.2 | |
Moderate hunger | 12.9 | 19.1 | 19.4 | 17.1 | |
Severe hunger | 3.2 | 4.8 | 3.2 | 3.7 | |
Vegetable variety score | |||||
Mean ± SD | 9.4 ± 3.0 | 10.6 ± 2.7 | 11.6 ± 3.3 | 10.5 ± 3.1 | <.0003* |
Low | 45.1 | 17.5 | 19.4 | 27.2 | <.0001* |
Moderate | 32.3 | 52.4 | 29.0 | 38.0 | |
High | 22.6 | 30.2 | 51.6 | 34.8 | |
Household asset index | <.0001* | ||||
Low | 17.7 | 44.4 | 59.7 | 40.6 | |
Moderate | 46.8 | 34.9 | 35.5 | 39.0 | |
High | 35.5 | 20.6 | 4.8 | 20.3 | |
Parity of woman | 4.6 ± 2.4 | 4.7 ± 2.0 | 4.6 ± 2.2 | 4.6 ± 2.2 | 0.99 |
Dependency ratio | 0.4 ± 0.2 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | 0.4 ± 0.2 | 0.60 |
Marital status of woman | 0.50 | ||||
Currently Married | 91.8 | 92.1 | 90.2 | 91.4 | |
Never married | 3.3 | 0 | 4.9 | 2.7 | |
Formerly married | 4.9 | 7.9 | 4.9 | 6.0 | |
Religious affiliation of woman | 0.87 | ||||
Islam | 93.5 | 93.7 | 91.8 | 93.0 | |
Christianity | 6.5 | 6.3 | 8.2 | 7.0 | |
Educational status of woman | 0.37 | ||||
Non-literate | 91.9 | 85.7 | 83.9 | 87.2 | |
Literate | 8.1 | 14.3 | 16.1 | 12.8 | |
Occupation of woman | 0.74 | ||||
Farmer | 83.9 | 85.7 | 80.7 | 83.4 | |
Other | 16.1 | 14.3 | 19.3 | 16.6 | |
Health status of woman | |||||
Hypertension (yes) | 4.8 | 3.2 | 8.1 | 5.4 | 0.43 |
Diabetes (yes) | 1.6 | 0 | 1.6 | 1.1 | 0.55 |
Diabetes/hypertension | 4.8 | 3.2 | 8.1 | 5.9 | 0.64 |
Drinking status | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | |
Smoking status | 0.33 | ||||
Ever smoked | 0 | 1.6 | 1.6 | 1.1 | 1.00 |
Sex of household head | 0.80 | ||||
Male | 96.8 | 94.9 | 96.8 | 96.2 | |
Female | 3.2 | 5.1 | 3.2 | 3.8 | |
Age of household head | |||||
Mean ± SD | 56.7 ± 13.3 | 51.1 ± 12.8 | 48.4 ± 12.1 | 52.0 ± 13.2 | 0.002* |
Median (IQR) | 56.0 (47.0, 62.0) | 50.0 (40.0, 60.0) | 48 (40.0, 56.0) | 50.0 (40.0, 60.0) | 0.004* |
Educational status of household head | 0.33 | ||||
Non-literate | 90.3 | 81.0 | 85.5 | 85.6 | |
literate | 9.7 | 19.0 | 14.5 | 14.4 | |
Occupation of household head | 0.50 | ||||
Farmer | 91.1 | 96.8 | 93.6 | 94.1 | |
Other | 8.1 | 3.2 | 6.4 | 5.9 |
The health-related quality of life (HR-QoL) and SF-36 subscales
Scale | Mean ± SD | Alpha Cronbach (α) |
---|---|---|
HR-QoL | 69.5 ± 13.6 | 0.78 |
Physical health component (PH) | 72.6 ± 17.4 | 0.75 |
Mental health component (MH) | 66.4 ± 12.6 | 0.62 |
Subscale of quality of life | ||
Physical functioning | 80.0 ± 17.4 | 0.80 |
Role functioning/physical | 74.0 ± 30.5 | 0.64 |
Body Pain | 70.4 ± 26.1 | 0.80 |
General health | 66.2 ± 17.9 | 0.74 |
Vitality /Energy | 51.0 ± 10.4 | 0.69 |
Social functioning | 75.4 ± 16.6 | 0.08 |
Emotional well-being | 63.9 ± 14.2 | 0.66 |
Role functioning/emotional | 75.5 ± 31.2 | 0.54 |
The cross-sectional association between vegetable intake in the past month and the HR-QoL, as well its PH and MH components
Model | Mean score (95% C.I) by terciles of vegetable intake | P-trend1 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Low (n = 62) | Moderate (n = 63) | High (n = 62) | ||
HR-QoL | ||||
Crude model | 65.9 (62.6, 69.3) | 70.5 (67.2, 73.8) | 72.1 (68.8, 75.4)a | 0.01* |
Multivariate model2 | 58.2 (52.0, 64.4) | 64.3 (58.2, 70.4)a | 67.4(61.3, 73.6)a | 0.0003* |
Physical health | ||||
Crude model | 68.3 (63.9, 72.6) | 74.4 (70.1, 78.7) | 75.4 (71.1, 79.7) | 0.03* |
Multivariate model2 | 57.8 (49.5, 66.1) | 65.8 (57.6, 73.9)a | 68.5 (60.3, 76.6)a | 0.002* |
Mental health | ||||
Crude model | 63.6 (60.5, 66.7) | 66.6 (63.5, 69.6) | 68.8 (65.7, 71.9)a | 0.02* |
Multivariate model2 | 58.5 (52.4, 64.6) | 62.9 (56.8, 68.9) | 66.4 (60.4, 72.5)a | 0.001* |
Subscales of the SF-36 | ||||
Physical functioning | ||||
Crude model | 75.9 (71.6, 80.2) | 81.5 (77.3, 85.8) | 82.3 (78.0, 86.6) | 0.05* |
Multivariate model2 | 61.7 (53.0, 70.4) | 68.8 (60.2, 77.3) | 71.4 (62.8, 80.0)a | 0.01* |
Role-physical | ||||
Crude model | 60.6 (53.4, 67.8) | 76.9 (69.8, 84.1)a | 85.1 (77.9, 92.3)a | <.0001* |
Multivariate model2 | 49.5(34.7, 64.3) | 69.8 (55.2, 84.3)a | 80.0 (65.4, 94.6) a | <.0001* |
Bodily pain | ||||
Crude model | 70.5 (63.9, 77.1) | 71.0 (64.5, 77.5) | 69.6 (63.0, 76.2) | 0.82 |
Multivariate model2 | 59.6 (46.1, 73.0) | 60.2 (47.0, 73.5) | 60.3 (47.1, 73.6) | 0.90 |
General health | ||||
Crude model | 66.0 (61.4, 70.5) | 68.2 (63.7, 72.7) | 64.5 (60.0, 69.0) | 0.59 |
Multivariate model2 | 60.5 (51.1, 69.9) | 64.3 (55.0, 73.6) | 62.1 (52.8, 71.4) | 0.79 |
Vitality/energy | ||||
Crude model | 50.8 (48.2, 53.4) | 50.2 (47.6, 52.7) | 51.6 (49.0, 54.2) | 0.62 |
Multivariate model2 | 49.9 (44.1, 55.6) | 50.4 (44.7, 56.1) | 52.5 (46.8, 58.2) | 0.19 |
Social functioning | ||||
Crude model | 75.4 (71.1, 79.6) | 75.6 (71.5, 79.8) | 73.9 (69.7, 78.1) | 0.61 |
Multivariate model2 | 75.3 (66.2, 84.3) | 76.4 (67.5, 85.4) | 73.4 (65.2, 83.1) | 0.74 |
Role emotional | ||||
Crude model | 63.6 (56.1, 71.0) | 76.2 (68.8, 83.5)a | 87.1 (79.7, 94.5)a | <.0001* |
Multivariate model2 | 48.0 (33.3, 62.7) | 64.9 (50.4, 79.4)a | 79.5 (65.0, 94.0)a | <.0001* |
Emotional well-being | ||||
Crude model | 64.8 (61.2, 68.3) | 64.3 (60.8, 67.9) | 62.6 (59.1, 66.2) | 0.39 |
Multivariate model2 | 60.9 (53.4, 68.3) | 59.7 (52.4, 67.0) | 59.6 (52.2, 66.9) | 0.70 |
The cross-sectional association between vegetable intake in the past month and the SF-36 subscales
The association between vegetable variety score (VVS) and the HR-QoL and its domains
Model | Mean score (95% C.I) by terciles of vegetable intake | P-trend1 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Low (n = 51) | Moderate (n = 71) | High (n = 65) | ||
HR-QoL | ||||
Crude model | 70.6 (66.9, 74.4) | 67.1 (64.0, 70.3) | 71.3 (68.0, 74.5) | 0.59 |
Multivariate model2 | 62.1 (55.9, 68.3) | 58.9 (52.6, 65.2) | 66.3 (60.3, 72.3)b | 0.04* |
Physical health | ||||
Crude model | 76.1 (71.3, 80.9) | 70.3 (66.3, 74.4) | 72.6 (68.4, 76.9) | 0.42 |
Multivariate model2 | 64.6 (56.2, 72.9) | 59.3 (50.8, 67.8) | 65.8 (57.7, 73.8) | 0.56 |
Mental health | ||||
Crude model | 65.2 (61.8, 68.6) | 63.9 (61.1, 66.8) | 69.9 (66.9, 72.9)b | 0.02* |
Multivariate model2 | 59.6 (53.7, 65.6) | 58.5 (52.5, 64.6) | 66.8 (61.1, 72.6)a, b | 0.001* |
Subscales of the SF-36 | ||||
Physical functioning | ||||
Crude model | 79.4 (74.6, 84.1) | 82.8 (78.7, 86.8) | 77.3 (73.1, 81.5) | 0.36 |
Multivariate model2 | 66.8 (58.0, 75.8) | 69.1 (60.2, 78.0) | 67.4 (58.9, 75.9) | 0.93 |
Role-physical | ||||
Crude model | 76.0 (67.7, 84.2) | 66.6 (59.7, 73.6) | 81.1 (73.8, 88.4)b | 0.18 |
Multivariate model2 | 62.8 (47.5, 78.1) | 55.1 (39.5, 70.6) | 74.7 (59.9, 89.5)b | 0.02* |
Bodily pain | ||||
Crude model | 77.4 (70.2, 84.5) | 67.0 (61.0, 73.1) | 68.5 (62.2, 74.9) | 0.12 |
Multivariate model2 | 63.3 (50.2, 76.4) | 53.1 (39.8, 66.4) | 60.5 (47.8, 73.2) | 0.72 |
General health | ||||
Crude model | 71.7 (66.8, 76.6)c | 64.8 (60.7, 69.0) | 63.5 (59.2, 67.9) | 0.02* |
Multivariate model2 | 65.4 (56.1, 74.7) | 60.0 (50.6, 69.5) | 60.7 (51.7, 69.7) | 0.18 |
Vitality/energy | ||||
Crude model | 47.3 (44.5, 50.0) | 49.6 (47.3, 51.9) | 55.1 (52.7, 57.5)a,b | <.0001* |
Multivariate model2 | 46.5 (41.0, 52.0) | 49.7 (44.1, 55.2) | 55.0 (49.7, 60.3)a,b | <.0001 * |
Social functioning | ||||
Crude model | 75.3 (70.7, 79.9) | 73.6 (69.7, 77.5) | 76.2 (72.1, 80.4) | 0.66 |
Multivariate model2 | 74.0 (65.1, 83.0) | 73.1 (64.0, 82.2) | 77.0 (68.3, 85.7) | 0.34 |
Role emotional | ||||
Crude model | 76.6 (68.1, 85.1) | 70.0 (62.8, 77.2) | 81.0 (73.5, 88.5) | 0.28 |
Multivariate model2 | 61.4 (45.3, 77.5) | 53.8 (37.5, 70.0) | 71.6 (56.3, 86.9)b | 0.05* |
Emotional well-being | ||||
Crude model | 61.6 (57.7, 65.5) | 62.6 (59.3, 65.9) | 67.2 (63.7, 70.6) | 0.03* |
Multivariate model2 | 56.3 (49.1, 63.5) | 57.5 (50.2, 64.8) | 64.0 (57.1, 70.9)a, b | 0.002* |