Introduction
Epidemiology and risk factors
Patient-specific | Donor–recipient HLA matching-related | Transplant-associated |
---|---|---|
Younger age at HSCT Non-malignant disease (especially primary immunodeficiencies and inborn errors of metabolism) Chemo-naivety prior to HSCT | Matched and mismatched unrelated donors Haploidentical donors | Use of lymphodepleting agents to prevent GvHD (alemtuzumab > ATG) Reduced intensity conditioning Source of stem cells (UCB > PBSC > BM) aGvHD grades II–IV cGvHD Viral infections (particularly CMV) Mixed chimerism |
Pathogenesis
Diagnosis
Treatment
First-line treatment
Treatment beyond first-line therapy
New agents and ongoing trials for non-responders
Unmet needs and future perspectives
Study | Population | Type of IMCs; incidence | No. of patients with non-malignant disease presenting IMCs | Treatment strategies | Outcome | Comments |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
O’Brien et al. [4] | 439 consecutive pediatric patients undergoing allogeneic HSCT | AHIA; 19/439 patients, cumulative incidence at 1 year 6% | 16 patients out of 19 with underlying NMD (11 storage disorders, 5 other non-malignant diseases) | MP (18/19), dex (7/19), IVIg (10/19), CSA withdrawn (8/19), RTX (3/19), PE (2/19), MMF (2/19), EPO (2/19) | 10/19 died, 3/10 because of massive hemolysis | Age < 10 years and metabolic disorders confer a higher risk of IMCs post-HSCT Patients developing AIHA were twice as likely to die when compared with patients who did not develop AIHA (RR 2.0, 95% CI 0.9–4.6, P = 0.10) |
Page et al. [17] | 19 consecutive infants (< 3 months of age) undergoing UCB | AIHA, ITP, neutropenia alone or in combination; 10/19 patients, overall cumulative incidence of 44% (95% CI 21–68%) and 56% (95% CI 32–80%) at 1 and 2 years | 10 patients affected by NMD (9 early infantile lysosomal storage diseases, 1 beta-thalassemia major) | MP (10/10), RTX (8/10), CSA withdrawn (5/10), IVIg (4/10), azathioprine (7/10), splenectomy (1/10), EPO (1/10), G-CSF (2/10) | 1/10 died of multisystem organ failure; OS in the entire cohort of 95% at 1 year | Markedly increased rate of posttransplant autoimmune cytopenias, probably because of immune dysregulation associated with GVHD prophylaxis during the first year of life |
Daikeler et al. [5] | 726 UCB recipients reported to EUROCORD | AIHA, ITP, neutropenia alone or in combination; 41/52 patients presenting AD post-HSCT had IMCs | 26/52 patients affected by non-malignant disorders (6 SAA, 6 SCID, 2 histiocytosis, 12 metabolic disorders) | MP (7/41), RTX (33/41), IVIg (9/41), azathioprine (2/41), CSA added to RTX (2/33), CSA alone (6/41), PE (1/41), no treatment (1/41) | The estimated 5-year OS was 91% ± 9% for patients who developed ITP, 59% ± 11% for those with AIHA, and 67% ± 16% for those with Evans syndrome | All IMCs in this study occurred in cord blood recipients having achieved at least mixed chimerism Non-malignant diseases and interval from diagnosis to CBT < 11.4 months independently associated with the occurrence of ADs after UCB in multivariate analysis |
Faraci et al. [6] | 1574 pediatric alloHCT | AIHA, ITP, neutropenia alone or in combination; 33/1574 patients presenting IMCS: 15 AHIA (45%), 10 ITP (30%), 5 Evans’ syndrome (15%), 2 pure red cell aplasia (6%), and 1 immune neutropenia (3%). The cumulative incidence of IMCs was 1.53% (95% CI, 1.02 to 2.30) 1 year after HSCT | 22/33 patients affected by non-malignant disorders (2 HLH, 1 Langh His, 6 MPS1, 4 SAA, 3FA, 1CA, 2 SCID, 1 WAS, 1 thalassemia major, 1 osteopetrosis) | Corticosteroids (25/33), IVIG (15/33), rituximab (15/33), sirolimus (2/33), EPO (2/33), plasma exchange (1/33) | Four patients (9%) died at a median of 87 days after IMC diagnosis | Use of alternative donor and non-malignant disease statistically associated to IMCs in multivariate analysis RTX represents an efficacious treatment for patients with steroid-refractory disease (87% of CRs in treated patients, 100% in AHIA) |
Ahmed et al. [16] | 500 pediatric HSCT recipients | AHIA; 12/500 (2.4%) recipients of first HSCT, 7/ 72 (9.7%) recipients of second HSCT | 5/12 non-malignant disorders (2 SCID, 1 thalassemia, 1 metabolic disorder, 1 SCAEBV); 4/7 non-malignant disorders (1 thalassemia, 1 SAA, 1 BDS, 1 SCID) | IVIG (5/12 and 4/7), steroid therapy (6/12 and 6/7), Rituximab (5/12 and 1/7), cyclophosphamide(1/12), danazol (2/12); 4 patients received second HSCT to control the AIHA and 3/4 were refractory to the second HSCT | The overall survival did not differ significantly among recipients of single HSCT with and without AIHA | A strong association between the onset of AIHA and HLA-mismatched status was found |
Kruizinga et al. [19] | 531 pediatric HSCT | AIHA, ITP, neutropenia alone or in combination; 26/531 patients; 3-year cumulative incidence of 5.0% (95% confidence interval, 3.4% to 7.3%) | 22/26 non-malignant disorders (9/26 β-thalassemia patients) | Steroids (19/26), IVIG (16/26), rituximab (15/26), wait-and-see approach (6/26), bortezomib (7/26) sirolimus(3/26) splenectomy (1/26) PE (1/26) stem cell boost/second HSCT (4/26) | After a median follow-up of 48 months, there was no significant difference between IMC and non-IMC patients (P = .887) | CMV reactivation (hazard ratio, 3.4; P = .02), non-malignant diagnosis pre-SCT (hazard ratio, 3.5; P = .031), and alemtuzumab use (hazard ratio, 2.5; P = .028) were independently associated with the occurrence of AIC Wait-and-see approach was sometimes chosen for non–life-threatening AIC and was efficacious in 83% of these selected patients β-thalassemia patients could be sensitized to the development of AIC because of a history of multiple blood transfusions |
Deambrosis et al. [10] | 36 UCBT recipients | AIHA, ITP, neutropenia alone or in combination; 8/36 (22%) patients | 8/36 affected by Hurler syndrome | Steroids (7/8), RTX (5/8), bortezomib (4/8), IVIg (4/8), PE (2/8), MMF (4/8), No treatment (1/8), vincristine (1/8), cyclophosphamide (1/8) | One patient failed 8 modes of therapy and died of persistent refractory pancytopenia and multiorgan failure 144 days post-UCBT | Multivariable analysis identified ALC as the most significant predictor of IMC in this population (adjusted odds ratio, 2.186; 95% confidence interval, 1.047–4.559; P = .037) IMC is a result of failed suppression of recipient immunity and part of a spectrum including graft rejection |
Szanto et al. [15] | 380 pediatric patients receiving HCT | AIHA, ITP, neutropenia alone or in combination; 30/380 patients (incidence of IMCs after HCT of 7.8%) | 21/30 non-malignant diseases | Steroids (all patients), MMF (15/30) sirolimus (12/30) RTX (19/30) | 4/30 responded to first-line therapy; overall all patients responded to additional therapies; OS 83% | In multivariate Cox regression analysis, aGVHD grades II to IV (hazard ratio [HR], 2.45; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.18 to 5.09; P = .0167), chemo-naivety before HCT (HR, 2.36; 95% CI, 1.00 to 5.57; P = .0499), and serotherapy (HR, 8.00; 95% CI, 1.05 to 61.04; P = .045) were independent predictors for AIC development |
Galvin et al. [25] | 297 pediatric patients receiving HCT for NMD | AIHA, ITP, neutropenia alone or in combination; 50/297 patients developed IMC (cumulative incidence of 18.4%) | 50/50 Non-malignant diseases: 26/50 Inherited metabolic disorder; 6/50 Hemoglobinopathy; 8/50 SAA; 6/50 Primary immune deficiency; 4/50 Epidermolysis bullosa | 90% of cases required at least supportive care, those with intermediate or prolonged IMC, all received corticosteroid therapy, with a response rate of 34%. The remainder required additional treatment (IVIGs, RTX, bortezomib, PE) | In the 50 patients with IMC, 6 died; 4 were attributable to IMC (8%). There was no difference in overall survival between those with IMC and without | Fine-Gray competing risk multivariate regression analysis identified a combined risk factor of younger age (< 3 years) and inherited metabolic disorder, as well as hemoglobinopathy (at any age) associated with 1-year incidence of IMC (P < .01) |