Background
Methods
Historical and anthropological background of the Albanian migration to Italy
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the “embassy migrants” period that took place during the summer of 1990, when around 20,000 Albanians left the country mainly for Italy thanks to the liberalization of passport issuing;
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the “main mass exodus” that began in the spring and summer of 1991, when 25,000 Albanians reached Apulia by boat and settled in Italy, and continued for the next 2 years during which around 300,000 Albanians left their home country;
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the migration due to the collapse of an investment pyramid scheme that took place during the spring of 1997;
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the 1999 migration wave that occurred during and after the Kosovo War crisis.
Historical and anthropological background of the Moroccan migration to Italy
Field study
Results
Plant food and herbal ingredients used by the two migrant communities
Botanical name of the plant ingredient and its botanical family | Common English name | Recorded Albanian name | Locally acquired (L) (cultivated, purchased or gathered from the wild [G]) or informally imported from Albania (I) | Part(s) used | Recorded food (F), medicinal (M), and food-medicinal (F/M) uses | Frequency of quotation |
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Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench, Malvaceae | Okra | Bamja | L | Fr | F: vegetable | ++ |
Allium cepa L., Amaryllidaceae | Onion | Qepa | L | Bu | M: crushed and topically applied with garlic and vinegar for treating knee pain | + |
Allium sativum L., Amaryllidaceae | Garlic | Hudhra | L and I | Bu | F: preserved in oil; seasoning home-made lacto-fermented (salt brined) pickles (turshi) M: hang under the stroller as an anti-Evil Eye agent | +++ |
Allium ampeloprasum L., Amaryllidaceae | Leek | Preshi, Purri | L | St | M: topical applications for treating ear-aches | + |
Beta vulgaris L., Amaranthaceae | Beetroot and chard | Panxhari | L | Le | F: preserved in oil (beet root) and filling for salty pies (byrek) (chard) | + |
Brassica oleracea L., Brassicaceae | Cabbage | Lakra | L | Le | F: sarma (leaves rolled around filling of rice and meat) | + |
Capsicum annuum L., Solanaceae | Chili and bell pepper | Djegës, Speci | L and I | Fr | F: fermented in sour ricotta (gjizë) or preserved in oil (chili) | + |
Cichorium intybus L., Asteraceae | Wild cichory | Rrapiqe | L (G) | Le | F: filling for salty pies (byrek) | + |
Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. and Nakai, Cucurbitaceae | Water melon | Shalqi | L and I (seeds) | Fr | F: consumed raw | + |
Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck, Rutaceae | Lemon | Limon | L and I | Fr | M: against flu and as an antiseptic | + |
Cucumis melo L., Cucurbitaceae | Melon | Bostan, Piepen | L and I (seeds) | Fr | F: consumed raw | + |
Cucurbita pepo L., Cucurbitaceae | Squash | Kungull | L | Fr | F: filling for pies (byrek) | + |
Cydonia oblonga Mill., Rosaceae | Quince tree | Ftoj | L | Wp | M: used for weather forecasting - if it blossoms in May, the following winter will be very cold | + |
Ficus carica L., Moraceae | Fig | Fik | L and I | Fr | F: jam | + |
Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Apiaceae | Fennel | Koper | L and I | Fr | F: seasoning cabbage sarma M: digestive and anti-bacterial teas | ++ |
Juglans regia L., Juglandaceae | Walnut | Arra | L and I | Se | F: kadaif and ashure sweets | + |
Laurus nobilis L., Lauraceae | Laurel | Dafën | L and I | Le | M: digestive and expectorant teas; when burnt in a baby’s room, the smoke protects the child against the Evil Eye | ++ |
Malva sylvestris L., Malvaceae | Mallow | Mullaga | L (G) and I | Le | M: topically applied to wounds for healing them; drunk as a tea against asthma; as an anti-Evil Eye agent | + |
Matricaria chamomilla L., Asteraceae | Chamomille | Kamomill | L and I | Ap | M: tea against flu and for calming | +++ |
Mentha spp., Lamiaceae | Mint | Mender, Nenexhik | L and I | Le | M: tea for treating flu | ++ |
Ocimum basilicum L., Lamiaceae | Basil | Borzilok | L | Le | M: as an anti-Evil Eye agent | + |
Orchis spp., Orchidaceae | Wild orchid | Salep | I | Ro | F/M: powdered and boiled in milk; in winter often drunk with a piece of bread | + |
Origanum vulgare L., Lamiaceae | Oregano | Rigon, Çaj mali | I | Ap | M: tea used recreationally, for treating inflammations, depurative, as a panacea | +++ |
Papaver rhoeas L., Papaveraceae | Corn poppy | Lulëkuqe | I | Fl | M: tea as a calming agent and a hemostatic | + |
Pelargonium spp., Geraniaceae | Geranium | Lulëbarbarosa | L and I | Le | F/M: syrup, also used as an astringent | + |
Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Fuss, Apiaceae | Parsley | Majdanoz | L | Le | F: seasoning home-made pickles (turshi) | ++ |
Phaseolus vulgaris L., Fabaceae | Green beens | Bishtaja | L and I (seeds) | Fr | F: vegetable | + |
Prunus avium (L.) L., Rosaceae | Cherry | Qershia | I | Fr | F: home-made alcoholic macerate | + |
Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D.A.Webb, Rosaceae | Almond | Bajame | L and I | Se | F: kabuni sweet | + |
Punica granatum L., Lythraceae | Pomegranate | Shegë | L and I | Fr | F: pulp processed in juice; M: fruit epicarp decocted and used externally for treating skin problems | + |
Rosa canina L., Rosaceae | Rose hip | Dranofile i egër | I | Fr | F: jam | + |
Rubus ulmifolius Schott, Rosaceae | Blueberry | Ferra | L (G) | Fr | M: tea as a depurative | + |
Rumex spp., Polygonaceae | Sorrell | Lepjet | L (G) | Le | F: filling for salty pies (byrek) | + |
Salvia officinalis L., Lamiaceae | Sage | Sherbela | L and I | Le | F: seasoning; M: digestive tea | + |
Silene vulgaris (Mill.) Garke, Caryophyllaceae | Bladder campion | Vesh lepri | G | Le | F: filling for salty pies (byrek) | + |
Solanum lycopersicum L., Solanaceae | Tomato | Domate | L | Uf | F: pickled | + |
Solanum tuberosum L., Solanaceae | Potato | Patate | L | Tu | F/M: soup for treating flu | + |
Solanum melongena L., Solanaceae | Aubergine | Patëllxhan | L | Fr | F: pickled, roasted | ++ |
Spinacia oleracea L., Amaranthaceae | Spinach | Spinaq | L | Le | F: filling for salty pies (byrek) | + |
Syderitis spp., Lamiaceae | Mountain tea | Çaj mali | I | Ap | M: tea used recreationally, for treating inflammations, depurative, as a panacea | +++ |
Trigonella foenum-graecum L., Fabaceae | Fenugreek | Trëndelinë | L and I | Se | F: seasoning; M: as a lucky charm | + |
Urtica dioica L., Urticaceae | Nettle | Hithër | L (G) | Le | F: filling for pies (byrek); M: teas drunk for treating rheumatisms or externally applied as a means for strengthening hair | ++ |
Vitis labrusca L., Vitaceae | Fox grape | Rrush çelek | I | Fr | F: consumed raw | + |
Ziziphus jujuba Mill., Rhamnaceae | Giuggiolo | Kymçe | I | Fr | F: consumed raw/fermented | + |
Botanical name of the plant ingredient and its botanical family | Common English name | Recorded Arabic name | Locally acquired (L) (cultivated, purchased or gathered from the wild [G]) or informally imported from Morocco (I) | Part(s) used | Recorded food (F), medicinal (M), and food-medicinal (F/M) uses | Frequency of quotation |
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Allium sativum L., Amaryllidaceae | Garlic | Thawm, Tuma | L | Bu | F/M: consumed for treating cold and flu and as an anti-bacterial agent (also macerated in oil for 1 month and then oil used when needed) | ++ |
Aloysia citriodora Palau, Verbenaceae | Lemon verbena | Luisa | L | Le | M: tea for treating digestive discomforts, headaches, fever, and as a relaxing agent | ++ |
Argania spinosa (L.) Skeels, Sapotaceae | Argan | Argan | L and I | Fr- > Oil | F: garnishing cous cous; dip for flatbread; used to prepare amlou, a cream made with argan oil, almonds, and honey; M: externally applied for treating dermatitis and dry skin and on the hair (cosmetic); internally as a cholesterol reducer | ++ |
Artemisia arborescens (Vaill.) L., Asteraceae | Wormwood | Sheeba | L and I | Le | M: tea (alone or added to mint tea), for treating cough | +++ |
Capsicum annuum L., Solanaceae | Chili | Filfil harr | L | Fr | F/M: seasoning, considered “good for blood circulation” | ++ |
Cinnamomum verum J.Presl, Lauraceae | Cinnamon | Karfa | L | Ba | F/M: spice for savory and sweet dishes; considered able to counteract diabetes and to relief menstrual pains | ++ |
Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck, Rutaceae | Lemon | Liymun | L | Fr | F: pickled in brine M: ingredients for treating various diseases (mixed with turmeric, ginger, epazote, and sage) | ++ |
Cladanthus mixtus (L.) Chevall. and Matricaria chamomilla L., Asteraceae | Moroccan and Italian chamomile | Babunj | L and I | M: tea used for treating stomach-aches and menstrual cramps, and as a calming agent; given to sick children | ++ | |
Coriandrum sativum L., Apiaceae | Coriander | Kusbar | L | Fr | F: cooking spice for savory dishes; universal spice mix base | ++ |
Crocus sativus L., Iridaceae | Saffron | Zaafaran al hur | L | Sg | F: cooking spice and colorant for savory and sweet dishes; F/M: consumed for treating stomach discomforts and fever during pregnancy | ++ |
Cucurbita pepo L., Cucurbitaceae | Squash | Zeret gara | L | Se | F/M: consumed for prostate health | + |
Cuminum cyminum L., Apiaceae | Cumin | Kamun | L | Fr | F: cooking spice for lentil and fish dishes; F/M: consumed as a means for treating stomach diseases, liver infections and as a digestive (also fruits macerated in water and then drunk) | +++ |
Curcuma longa L., Zingiberaceae | Turmeric | Karkoum | L and I | Ro | F: seasoning and colorant for savory dishes; F/M: consumed, it is considered able to treat colds and skin and liver diseases, and as a panacea (sometimes mixed with lemon juice and honey) | +++ |
Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin and Clemants, Amaranthaceae | Epazote | Mkhinza | I | Le | M: tea as an anti-fever agent (sometimes with lemon juice); also mixed with red onion and Bible hyssop to create a paste to be applied to the head | ++ |
Elettaria cardamomum (L.) Maton, Zingiberaceae | Cardamom (green) | Huba alhal | L | Fr | F: cooking spice for savory dishes | + |
Ficus carica L., Moraceae | Fig | Shreha | L | Fr | M: fruits left in olive oil for approx. One month, then oil drunk as needed for treating constipation | + |
Foeniculum vulgare Mill., Apiaceae | Fennel | Alshamra | L | Fr | F: garnish for sweets and breads; cooking spice for savory dishes; M: tea considered good as a digestive (sometimes ground fruit with coffee), to promote lactation; calmative for children; and for losing weight | ++ |
Juniperus oxycedrus L., Cupressaceae | Juniper (cade) | Quatran | I | Fr- > Oil | M: hair treatment (dying mean) | + |
Laurus nobilis L., Lauraceae | Bay laurel | Wrqa sidna musar | L and I | Le | F: seasoning for chicken and red meat dishes; M: dried leaves are burned, and vapors inhaled for treating fever, to clear throat and help sleep | ++ |
Lavandula spp., Lamiaceae | Lavender | Khzama | L | Fl | M: tea used for lung problems, rheumatisms, stomach-ache, bladder problems, and constipation | ++ |
Lawsonia inermis L., Lythraceae | Henna | Alhana | L | Le | M: paste used to color hair or decorate skin | + |
Lepidium sativum L., Brassicaceae | Garden cress | Hab rchad | L | Se | M: to “warm the body” and to prevent colds | ++ |
Linum usitatissimum L., Linaceae | Flax | Zeret kitan | L | Se | F: garnish for sweets and breads | + |
Malva sylvestris L., Malvaceae | Mallow | Khobiza | L (G) | Le | M: tea for cold and inflammations of the digestive tract | ++ |
Mentha pulegium L., Lamiaceae | Pennyroyal | Fliou | L | M: tea for sore throats, cold, and fever | +++ | |
Mentha spicata L., Lamiaceae | Spearmint | Nene | L | Le | M: recreational and digestive tea | +++ |
Mentha suaveolens Ehrh., Lamiaceae | Apple mint | Marseta | L (G) | F: occasionally gathered from the roadside and consumed on bread; F/M: consumed with honey as a strengthening agent, for improving mental capabilities and against colds | + | |
Myristica fragrans Houtt., Myristicaceae | Nutmeg | Gouza | L | Se | F: spice for sweets | + |
Nigella sativa L., Ranunculaceae | Nigella sativa | Al habba assawda | L | Se | F: garnish for sweets and breads; M: remedy for colds, cough, promoting lactation, and treating bone problems; seeds burned, the smoke released throughout the house, with windows open: considered able to counteract negative energies | ++ |
Olea europaea L., Oleaceae | Olive | Zeytun | L | Le, Fr- > Oil | F/M: oil considered good for general health; M: leaves in tea for treating high blood pressure | ++ |
Origanum majorana L., Lamiaceae | Marjoram | Mardadouch | L | Le | F/M: seasoning and digestive agent M: recreational tea | + |
Origanum syriacum L. and O. vulgare L. Lamiaceae | Bible hyssop and Oregano | Zaatar | L and I | Leaves | F: herb for some savory dishes F/M: also considered useful in food as a digestive aid (carminative), for reliving menstrual pains, as an anti-fever agent, against stomach-aches, as an anti-diarrheal agent, and for losing weight | +++ |
Papaver somniferum L. Papaveraceae | Poppy | Budhur alkhashkhash | L | Se | F: garnish for sweets and breads | + |
Phoenix dactylifera L., Arecaceae | Date | Tmar | L and I | Fr | F/M: consumed for providing strength and energy (“Muslims should eat 3, 5 or 7 dates every day, like the Prophet Mohammad”) | +++ |
Pimpinella anisum L., Apiaceae | Anise | Nafaa, Yassun, Habat hlewa | L | Fr | F: garnish for sweets and breads; M: tea considered good as a digestive and for losing weight (sometimes fruits ground with coffee) | + |
Piper nigrum L., Piperaceae | Black pepper | Al folfol al aryad | L | Fr | F: belbula (dish made with wheat, milk, and pepper) F/M: seasoning as a digestive aid | +++ |
Pistacia lentiscus L., Anacardiaceae | Mastic | Maska al hurra | I | Re | F/M: as a natural chewing gum, for treating toothaches | ++ |
Punica granatum L., Lythraceae | Pomegranate | Raman | L | Fr | F/M: consumed for general health (as one of the foods mentioned in the Quran it is thus believed curative) | + |
Rosa spp., Rosaceae | Rose | Waradi | L | Fl | F: flavoring for sweets; F/M: considered an aphrodisiac | + |
Rosmarinus officinalis L., Lamiaceae | Rosemary | Iklil al jabal, Azir | L | Le | M: tea for relieving sore throats and good for the general health | ++ |
Salvadora persica L., Salvadoraceae | Tooothbrush tree | Miswak | L and I | Wo | M: oral hygiene, externally applied; in teas, for treating stomach problems and during menstruation | +++ |
Salvia officinalis L., Lamiaceae | Sage | Salmiya | L | Le | M: tea for relieving sore throats and heart problems; with lemon for treating stomach-aches | ++ |
Sesamum indicum L., Pedaliaceae | Sesame | Assimssim, zanjlan | L | Se | F: garnish for sweets, breads, and savory dishes F/M: strengthening food | ++ |
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. and L.M.Perry, Myrtaceae | Cloves | Al koronfol | L | Fb | F: cooking spice for savory and sweet dishes | + |
Thymus vulgaris L., Lamiaceae | Thyme | Zaetar | L | Le | M: tea for treating stomach diseases | + |
Trigonella foenum-graecum L., Fabaceae | Fenugreek | Al halba | L | Se | F: cooking spice for savory dishes (esp. cous cous, lentils, breads); M: tea as a digestive aid, an anti-fever agent, an appetite stimulant, and for promoting lactation; seeds, powdered and made into a paste with water, applied directly to skin for treating blemishes | ++ |
Zingiber officinale Roscoe, Zingiberaceae | Ginger | Skinjbir | L | Ro | F: used in many savory dishes; F/M: in food it is considered able to treat colds and to have anti-inflammatory properties; M: used externally in massage oils; in tea with lemon for the prevention of colds and as an anti-fever agent | +++ |
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frequency of quotation: while most of the home country plant ingredients were frequently or moderately mentioned by Moroccan migrants, the majority of those mentioned by Albanians were rarely mentioned as still in use in Italy (Fig. 2);
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ways through which the home country plant ingredients are acquired: while most of the ingredients used by Moroccans were purchased in local (ethnic) shops and markets, a considerable portion of the ingredients used by Albanians were informally “imported” during family visits from Albania (Fig. 3);
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quantitative and qualitative differences in the plant reports mentioned by the two communities: (a) the plant reports recorded in the domestic arena of Moroccans were very diverse and nearly doubled the reports recorded among Albanians and (b) most of the plant ingredients mentioned by Albanians are used only as food ingredients, whereas most ingredients mentioned by Moroccans represent “food-medicines” (Fig. 4).
Eating Albanian and Moroccan in Italy: a different resilience of traditional botanical and gastronomic knowledge
Albanian and Italian cuisines among Albanian migrants
“Due to geographic vicinity and the major influence of Italian language, television, music, culture in general in Albania, the gastronomic traditions have been mixed up for many years already, more evident after 1992. Currently, in Tirana there are many Italian restaurants run by Albanians and Italians, and also in our daily dishes pasta, pizza, and a few other ingredients are regularly present”. (Female, 43 years old).
Moroccan and Italian cuisines among Moroccan migrants
“In Morocco breakfast is generally salty with bread, cheese, olive oil, butter, and sometimes honey and jam. Occasionally we have coffee during the afternoon as a snack. We never drink coffee at breakfast. In Morocco, we eat everything on the same plate, called tajin. This is because sharing food means the union and love of our family”. (male, 62 years old).
Gender relations and food within migrant households
Traveling plants: informal exchanges with the home country
“One month ago, my mom brought from Albania some herbal teas for me in Italy. She also brought some homemade cow cheese. I felt so much pleasure, I love cheese. Also, small tomatoes, peppers, and chilies in brine; we used to eat a lot of pickles in Albania. And cigarettes of course!”
The loss of foraging knowledge
Differences in the plant reports by Albanian and Moroccan migrants
Discussion
Gastronomic deculturation, enculturation, or assimilation?
Another important aspect concerns the memorial and evocative function of food. When asked what Albanian cuisine represents to them, almost all the interviewees stated that it was a tool to go back to their origin, their childhood, and their national identity. One 32-year-old Albanian woman reported: “Sometimes I try to cook something traditionally Albanian because it reminds me of my grandmother but it’s difficult… I like it because it is something connected to memories, my mother cooking at home.”“Albanians eat to live. Italians live to eat. I remember when I first came here, I couldn't believe that people just talked about food all the time! At school, work, in the streets... It wasn't until I came to Italy that I began to realize the importance of food.”