Background
Methods
Study design and setting
Sample size and sampling procedure
Zone | Total number of households | Sampled households per zone |
---|---|---|
Kawaala 1 | 3500 | 100 |
Kasubi zone 1 | 2000 | 64 |
Kasubi zone 3 | 2800 | 84 |
Kawaala 2 | 2400 | 67 |
Kasubi zone 4 | 1700 | 50 |
Kasubi zone 2 | 1600 | 36 |
Data collection
Data management and analysis
Ethical considerations
Results
Sociodemographic characteristics of participants
Variables | Frequency (n = 395) | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Gender | ||
Female | 300 | 75.9 |
Male | 95 | 24.1 |
Age (years) [mean (± SD)] | 30.0 (10.8) | |
18–29 | 250 | 63.3 |
30–45 | 104 | 26.3 |
≥ 46 | 41 | 10.4 |
Education level | ||
None or primary | 122 | 30.9 |
Post-primary | 273 | 69.1 |
Marital status | ||
Single | 148 | 37.5 |
Married | 207 | 52.4 |
Widowed/separated/divorced | 40 | 10.13 |
Religion | ||
Christian | 306 | 77.5 |
Muslim | 89 | 22.5 |
Occupation | ||
Business | 152 | 38.5 |
Unemployed | 103 | 26.1 |
Formal employment | 49 | 12.4 |
Student/pupil | 45 | 11.4 |
Farming | 46 | 11.7 |
Household size | ||
1–3 | 174 | 44.0 |
4–6 | 162 | 41.0 |
≥ 7 | 59 | 15.0 |
Sources and institutional aspects of domestic water
Variables | Frequency (N = 395) | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Main water source | ||
Piped water | 303 | 76.7 |
Springs | 92 | 23.3 |
Estimated distance to nearest water source (meters) | ||
≤ 20 (within the compound) | 278 | 70.4 |
21–100 | 85 | 21.5 |
101–500 | 32 | 8.1 |
Water obtained from communally owned source | ||
No | 296 | 74.9 |
Yes | 99 | 25.1 |
Water user committee for communal sources present (n = 99) | ||
Yes | 53 | 53.5 |
No | 27 | 27.3 |
Do not know | 19 | 19.2 |
Water consumption per person per day (liters) | ||
≤ 40 | 243 | 61.5 |
> 40 | 152 | 38.5 |
Paid for water | ||
Yes | 288 | 72.9 |
No | 107 | 27.1 |
Paid towards maintenance of main water source | ||
No | 368 | 93.2 |
Yes | 27 | 6.8 |
Knowledge on water safety and its importance
Variables | Frequency (N = 395) | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Contamination of water occurs | ||
At the source | 198 | 50.1 |
During storage (storage container) | 117 | 29.6 |
During use | 49 | 12.4 |
Do not know | 31 | 7.9 |
Safe water is | ||
Water that is clear | 221 | 56.0 |
Boiled water | 89 | 22.5 |
Water that has no germs | 55 | 13.9 |
Did not know | 30 | 7.6 |
Said they knew dangers of drinking unsafe water | ||
Yes | 384 | 97.2 |
No | 11 | 2.8 |
Benefits of drinking safe water | ||
Prevents disease | 370 | 94.4 |
Others (saving money, improving work efficiency) | 10 | 2.5 |
Did not know | 15 | 3.8 |
Preventive measures for diarrheal diseases | ||
Drinking boiled water | 244 | 61.8 |
Keeping good personal hygiene | 38 | 9.6 |
Eating well-cooked food | 26 | 6.6 |
Washing hands with soap before eating food | 23 | 5.8 |
Others* | 30 | 7.6 |
Did not know | 34 | 8.6 |
Maintenance of safe water chain by households
Variables | Frequency (n = 395) | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Used water collection container that minimizes contamination1 | ||
Yes | 383 | 97.0 |
No | 12 | 3.0 |
Water collection container clean1 | ||
Yes | 320 | 81.0 |
No | 75 | 19.0 |
Methods of drinking water treatment^ | ||
Boiling | 377 | 95.4 |
Chlorination | 16 | 4.1 |
Filtration | 09 | 2.3 |
Do not treat water | 11 | 2.8 |
Method of water treatment appropriate1 | ||
No | 13 | 3.3 |
Yes | 382 | 96.2 |
No | 45 | 11.4 |
Yes | 350 | 88.6 |
Water storage container clean1 | ||
No | 18 | 4.6 |
Yes | 377 | 95.4 |
Cleaned drinking water storage containers at least once a week1 | ||
Yes | 108 | 27.3 |
No | 287 | 72.7 |
Cleaned water storage containers by scrubbing and rinsing1 | ||
No | 174 | 44.0 |
Yes | 221 | 56.0 |
Used a separate cup or container to draw drinking water from storage containers1 | ||
No | 329 | 83.3 |
Yes | 66 | 16.7 |
Maintenance of safe water chain (mean score, SD) | 6.91 ± 1.28 | |
Low (scores < 6.91) | 267 | 67.6 |
High (scores ≥ 6.91) | 128 | 32.4 |
Factors associated with maintenance of the safe water chain
Characteristic (categories) | Safe water chain maintenance | Crude PR (95% CI) | p value | Adjusted PR (95% CI) | p value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Yes, n (%) | No, n (%) | |||||
Socio-economic factors | ||||||
Gender | ||||||
Male | 20 (21.1) | 75 (78.9) | 1 | 1 | ||
Female | 108 (36.0) | 192 (64.0) | 1.71 (1.13–2.56) | 0.012* | 1.82 (1.19–2.78) | 0.005* |
Age (years) | ||||||
14–29 | 90 (36.0) | 160 (64.0) | 1 | 1 | ||
30–45 | 27 (26.0) | 77 (74.0) | 0.72 (0.50–1.04) | 0.079 | 0.84 (0.59–1.22) | 0.377 |
> 45 | 11 (26.8) | 30 (73.2) | 0.75 (0.44–1.27) | 0.279 | 1.06 (0.62–1.81) | 0.842 |
Education level | ||||||
None/primary | 27 (22.1) | 95 (77.9) | 1 | 1 | ||
Post-primary | 101 (37.0) | 172 (63.0) | 1.67 (1.16–2.41) | 0.006* | 1.48 (1.02–2.17) | 0.041* |
Marital status | ||||||
Single | 51 (34.5) | 97 (65.5) | 1 | |||
Married | 68 (32.9) | 139 (67.2) | 0.95 (0.71–1.28) | 0.751 | ||
Widowed/divorced/separated | 9 (22.5) | 31 (77.5) | 0.65 (0.35–1.21) | 0.176 | ||
Occupation | ||||||
Business | 40 (26.3) | 112 (73.7) | 1 | 1 | ||
Unemployed | 33 (32.0) | 70 (68.0) | 1.21 (0.83–1.79) | 0.320 | 1.13 (0.78–1.64) | 0.528 |
Salaried work | 20 (40.8) | 29 (59.2) | 1.55 (1.01–2.38) | 0.045* | 1.41 (0.94–2.12) | 0.098 |
Student | 21 (46.7) | 24 (53.3) | 1.77 (1.18–2.67) | 0.006* | 1.58 (1.03–2.41) | 0.034* |
Farming | 14 (30.4) | 32 (69.6) | 1.16 (0.69–1.93) | 0.578 | 1.22 (0.73–2.05) | 0.453 |
Number of people in the household | ||||||
1–3 | 52 (29.9) | 122 (70.1) | 1 | |||
4–6 | 54 (33.3) | 108 (66.7) | 1.12 (0.81–1.52) | 0.497 | ||
≥ 7 | 22 (37.3) | 37 (62.7) | 1.24 (0.83–1.86) | 0.281 | ||
Water source-related and individual factors | ||||||
Main water source used by household | ||||||
Piped water | 99 (32.7) | 204 (67.3) | 1 | |||
Springs | 29 (31.5) | 63 (68.5) | 0.96 (0.69–1.36) | 0.837 | ||
Water from communally owned source | ||||||
No | 102 (34.5) | 194 (65.5) | 1 | |||
Yes | 26 (26.3) | 73 (73.7) | 0.76 (0.53–1.10) | 0.146 | ||
Estimated distance to water source (meters) | ||||||
≤ 20 (within the compound) | 94 (33.8) | 184 (66.2) | 1 | |||
21–100 | 23 (27.1) | 62 (72.9) | 0.80 (0.54–1.18) | 0.258 | ||
101–500 | 11 (34.4) | 21 (65.6) | 1.02 (0.61–1.68) | 0.949 | ||
Water consumption per person per day (liters) | ||||||
≤ 40 | 72 (29.6) | 171 (70.4) | 1 | |||
> 40 | 56 (36.8) | 96 (63.2) | 1.24 (0.94–1.65) | 0.134 | ||
Paid for water collection/fetching | ||||||
No | 41 (38.3) | 66 (61.7) | 1 | |||
Yes | 87 (30.2) | 201 (69.3) | 0.79 (0.59–1.06) | 0.118 | ||
Perception of where most contamination occurred | ||||||
At the source | 58 (29.3) | 140 (70.7) | 1 | 1 | ||
During storage (jerry can/container) | 53 (45.3) | 64 (54.7) | 1.55 (1.15–2.08) | 0.004* | 1.47 (1.10–1.97) | 0.009* |
At point of use | 10 (20.4) | 39 (79.6) | 0.70 (0.38–1.26) | 0.233 | 0.69 (0.39–1.22) | 0.197 |
Did not know | 7 (22.6) | 24 (77.4) | 0.77 (0.39–1.53) | 0.458 | 0.79 (0.41–1.52) | 0.475 |