Introduction
Methods
Statistical analysis
Results
Study | Sample | Mean age ± SD (years) | Patient details/cancer treatment | Duration of intervention (weeks) | Exercise program details | Frequency, duration, and intensity | Key findings/comments |
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Livingston [52] | EI n = 54 Cont (usual care) n = 93 | EI 66.9 ± 8.2 Cont 64.7 ± 8.7 | Men who have completed active treatment for PCa within the previous 3 to 12 months RT: n = 42 Surgery: n = 66 RT + surgery: n = 39 Currently on ADT: n = 31 | 12 | Published in Gaskin et al. (2016): AE 20–30 min at 40–70% HFmax RE: 2 sets of 4–6 upper and lower body REs (unisonous exercises: 90° leg press, seated chest press, seated row) | Training 3×/week (2×/week supervised at the gym, 50 min each; 1×/week home-based) | Primary outcome: self-reported physical activity (Godin-Sheperd Leisure Time Exercise Questionnaire): ↑ Vigorous-intensity activity (EI) ↑ MVPA ≥150 min/week % (EI) Secondary outcomes: ↔ PA (accelerometer) ↔ QoL (EORTC-30) ↓ Total anxiety (MAX-PC)* ↓ PSA anxiety (MAX-PC)* ↓ Fear of recurrence anxiety (MAX-PC)* (↑) Cognitive function (EORTC-30) (↓) Depression symptoms (CES-D) *Sig. effect found in Cont, no changes in EI! |
Nilsen [53] | EI n = 28 Cont = 30 (usual care) | EI 66 ± 6.6 Cont 66 ± 5 | PCaPs with intermediate or high-risk profile referred to high-dose RT and (neo)adjuvant ADT (9–36 months) | 16 | RE only, progressive, heavy sessions supervised Smith machine half squat, leg press, Smith machine standing calf raises, knee flexion, knee extension, chest press, seated row, seated shoulder press, biceps curls | Training 3×/week Weeks 1 and 2: familiarization 2× 10 reps at 40–50% 1RM Weeks 3–16: Mondays (heavy session): 1–3× 10RM Wednesdays (submaximal session): 2–3× 10 reps at 80–90% of 10RM Fridays (heavy session): 2–3× 6RM | Body composition: ↔ LBM total and trunk ↑ LBM lower extremities, upper extremities appendicular skeletal muscle (EI > Cont) ↔ Total and trunk fat mass, fat percentage ↔ Body mass ↔ BMI ↔ Total and regional BMD Performance parameters: ↑ Strength (1RM): leg press, chest press, shoulder press (EI > Cont) ↑ Sit to stand (EI > Cont) ↑ Stair climbing test (EI > Cont) (↑) Shuttle walk (EI > Cont) ↔ Health-related QoL (EORTC-30) |
Winters-Stone [54] | 64 couples (PCS + spouses) EI n = 32 couples Cont n = 32 couples (usual care) | EI: PCS 70.6 ± 6.3 Cont: PCS 72.9 ± 8.0 | PCS that received treatment for PCa, not currently undergoing chemo or RT RT: n = 28 Surgery: n = 43 Chemo: n = 2 Currently on ADT: n = 11 | 26 | Progressive partnered strength training, supervised Group exercise Lower body: chair rises, 90° squats, multi-directional lunges Upper body: rows, bench press, push-ups, triceps extension, shoulder raise | 2×/week, 1 h/session 8–10 exercises/session 5 min aerobic warm-up Lower body: 4–15% of bodyweight with weighted vest Upper body: 15-8RM 5–10 min stretching cool-down | Only the results of the PCaPs are displayed: ↔ Body composition (DXA): LBM, Fat mass, Trunk fat mass Maximal muscle strength (1RM): • ↑ Upper body muscle strength (bench press) EI > Cont • ↔ Lower body muscle strength (single leg press) ↔ Physical function (PPB) ↔ Physical and mental health summary scales, physical function and fatigue subscales (SF-36) ↑ Physical activity (CHAMPS) EI > Cont No dropouts within EI! Mean adherence in PCS in EI 77% |
Hojan [55] | 54 high-risk PCa EI n = 27 Cont n = 27 (usual group) | Overall 68.5 ± 6.1 EI 67.4 ± 8.3 Cont 69.9 ± 7.2 | High-risk PCa, undergoing RT and scheduled for ADT planned to continue for 36 months RT dose of 76 Gy in 38 fractions | 8 | Moderate-intensity physical exercise, supervised Alone and in groups AE: brisk walking, running, cycling RE: biceps curls, triceps extension, leg extension, leg curl, abdominal crunch | 5×/week, 50–55 min/session: 5 min warm-up 30 min AE 15 min RE: 2× 8 reps at 70–75% of est1RM 5 min cool-down MaxHR was set at 65–70% of estHFmax Cont: ADLs | Functional capacity: ↑ 6MWT; ↔ METs, dsypnoea (Borg Scale) Blood parameters: ↔ Hb, PSA, white blood cells, red blood cells, platelets, lymphocytes, IL-1β, IL-6, TNF-α Qol (EORTC QLQ-C30): ↑ Physical, emotional, and cognitive functioning ↓ Fatigue QoL (QLQ-PR23): ↓ Incontinence aid Fatigue (FACT-G and -F): ↑ General score, fatigue score, physical/emotional/functional well-being, Sig. correlations in EI: • Between IL-6 and total QoL after RT (direct) • Between TNF-α and cognitive at baseline (direct) Sig. correlations in Cont: • Between IL-1β and fatigue after RT (inverse) • Between IL-6 and cognitive at baseline (direct) |
Additional article | Expansion | Results |
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Gaskin [64] Additional article of Livingston [52] | Additional results Fitness outcomes | • ↑ Aerobic fitness (6-min walk test) • ↑ Upper body maximal strength (1RM, 90° leg press) • ↑ Lower body maximal strength (1RM, seated chest press) • ↑ Lower body muscular endurance (sit to stand test) • ↑ Balance (functional reach test) • ↔ BMI • ↔ Girth measurements (chest, waist, hips, upper arm, mid-thigh) • ↔ Resting heart rate • ↔ Blood pressure |
Nilsen [65] Additional article of Nilsen [53] | Additional results Muscle cellular outcomes (biopsies) EI: n = 12 Cont: n = 11 | Muscle fiber CSA • (↑) Within group difference (EI) • ↔ Within group difference (Cont) • ↑ Between group difference (EI > Cont) (larger effect in type II fibers) Number of myonuclei • ↑ Within group difference (EI) • ↔ Within group difference (Cont) • (↑) Between group difference (EI > Cont) Myonuclear domain • ↔ EI and Cont within group difference • ↔ EI vs. Cont between group difference Myonuclei per muscle fiber • ↑ EI type I fibers Muscle fiber CSA/myonuclei • ↓ EI type I fibers Number of satellite cells • ↔ EI and Cont, EI vs. Cont ↔ Androgen receptor and myostatin Muscle strength (knee extensor 1RM) • ↑ Within group difference (EI) • ↔ Within group difference (Cont) • ↑ Between group difference (EI > Cont) |
Nilsen [66] Additional article of Nilsen [53] | Additional results Muscle cellular stress EI: n = 16 Cont: n = 15 | Mitochondrial proteins, between group effects: • ↔ Citrate synthase • ↔ Cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV (COXIV) • ↔ HSP60 Mitochondrial proteins, within group effects: • (↓) Citrate synthase in Cont Indicators of muscle cellular stress, between group effects: • ↔ HSP70 • ↔ Alpha-B crystallin • ↔ HSP27 • ↔ Free ubiquitin • ↔ Total ubiquinated proteins Indicators of muscle cellular stress, within group effects: • ↓ HSP70 in EI |
Buffart [67] Additional article of Galvao [45] | Moderator and mediator analysis | Moderators: • Marital status moderated the effect of EI on global QoL in favor of married patients (no difference in attendance). • Time since diagnosis moderated the effect of EI on global QoL and physical, emotional, cognitive, and social function with a smaller effect in patients who started exercising later after diagnosis compared with those who started sooner (no association with attendance). • Significant moderation effect of presence of comorbidity on cognitive function with a larger effect in patients with comorbidities. • Borderline moderation effect of biphosphonate use on physical, role, and emotional function in favor of patients who previously used biphosphonates (no difference in attendance). Mediators and associations: • Chair rise time significantly mediated effect of EI on global QoL and physical and social function. • Chair rise test improvements associated with improvements in global QoL and physical and social function. • Self-reported PA increases associated with improvements in global QoL. • Fatigue reductions associated with improvements in global QoL and physical, role, emotional, and social function. • Distress reductions associated with improvements in global QoL and physical and role function. • Falls self-efficacy improvements associated with improvements in global QoL and physical, role, and social function. • No significant mediating effects on health-related QoL outcomes for aerobic fitness, physical activity, fatigue, distress, or falls self-efficacy. |
Gilbert [68] Additional article of Bourke [40] | Additional results Endothelial function | Results from a subset of 50 subjects from the original trial (25 EI + 25 Cont): Vascular assessments/endothelial function: • ↑ FMD at 12 weeks • (↓) Diastolic blood pressure • ↔ Systolic blood pressure Body composition (BiA): • ↑ Skeletal muscle mass at 12 weeks • ↔ Lipid profile Blood markers: • ↑ SHBG • ↔ Total testosterone, free androgen index, PSA Exercise tolerance: • ↑ Treadmill walk time at 12 and 24 weeks Exercise and dietary behavior: • ↑ Exercise behavior (Godin LSI) at 12 weeks • ↔ Dietary behavior |
Lyons [69] Additional article of Winters-Stone [54] | Additional results Levels of physical intimacy | Engagement in affectionate and sexual behaviors • Engagement in affectionate behaviors: ↑ wives and ↔ husbands in the EI group compared to Cont • Engagement in sexual behaviors: ↔ husbands and wives |
Winters-Stone [70] Additional article of Winters-Stone [51] | Additional results Body composition, blood biomarkers Moderation and mediation analysis | Body composition and blood biomarkers • ↓ Total fat • (↓) Percent body fat • (↓) Trunk fat • ↔ Lean mass • ↔ Insulin • ↔ IGF-1 • ↔ SHBG • (↑) Physical activity energy expenditure Moderation and mediation analysis • Age moderates the insulin response to exercise (insulin reductions were smaller with increasing age) • Sig. indirect effect of loss of total fat mass and loss of trunk fat mass on group differences in insulin from baseline to 12 months |