Introduction
Clinical presentation and prevalence of MS-induced neuropathic pain
Dysaesthetic extremity pain
Trigeminal neuralgia
L’hermitte’s sign
Pharmacological management of MS-induced neuropathic pain
Medication/dose range or mean daily dose | Study design | Type of pain assessed; number of patient (n) | Pain relief outcome or proportion of patients achieving pain relief | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
MS-associated persistent or central neuropathic pain | ||||
Nortriptyline (10–50 mg) or self-applied TENS | Randomised single-blind | Upper extremities pain (n = 59) | Both treatments significantly reduced VAS pain scores | Chitsaz et al. (2009) |
Lamotrigine (25–400 mg) | Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled | CNP (n = 12) | Insignificant pain relief above placebo | Breuer et al. (2007) |
Levetiracetam (2,000–3,000 mg) | Randomised, single-blind, placebo-controlled | Constant NP (n = 13) Intermittent NP (non-trigeminal) (n = 5) Mixed (constant/intermittent NP) (n = 2) | Significant pain relief | Rossi et al. (2009) |
Levetiracetam (3,000 mg) | Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled | CNP (n = 27) | Overall insignificant pain relief above placebo; patient subgroups reported relief of lancinating pain or absence of touch-evoked pain | Falah et al. (2012) |
Lamotrigine (25–400 mg) (add-on therapy) | Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled | CNP (n = 9) | Insignificant pain relief | Silver et al. (2007) |
Dronabinol (10 mg) | Randomised double-blind, placebo-controlled | CNP (n = 24) | Significant decrease in median spontaneous pain intensity relative to placebo in last week of treatment | Svendsen et al. (2004) |
Dronabinol (10 mg) | Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled | CNP (n = 24) | Modest analgesic effect | Svendsen et al. (2005a) |
Sativex (THC:CBD) (Max 48 sprays per day, each delivering 2.7 mg of THC and 2.5 mg of CBD) | Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel group | CNP Dysaesthetic pain (n = 59) Painful spasms (n = 7) | Significant pain relief above placebo for mean pain intensity | Rog et al. (2005) |
Baclofen (50 μg I.T.) | Randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled | Patients exhibited mixed chronic dysaesthetic or spasm-related pain (n = 4) | Short-term pain relief above placebo for dysaesthetic pain or spasm-related pain | Herman et al. (1992) |
Baclofen (5–1,200 μg I.T.) + Morphine (800–9,500 μg I.T.) | Open-label | Dysesthesia or burning sensations mostly exhibited along with spasticity pain (n = 9) | Insignificant relief of neuropathic pain by baclofen alone; alleviated only by baclofen in combination with morphine | Sadiq and Poopatana (2007) |
Gabapentin (300–2,400 mg) | Open-label | All patients experienced more than one type of pain (neuropathic and non-neuropathic) (n = 25) | Pain relief data for individual neuropathic pain symptoms not reported. Overall moderate to excellent pain relief indicated by 15/22 patients. Side effects reported by 11/22. | Houtchens et al. (1997) |
Lamotrigine (25–400 mg) (add-on therapy) | Open-label | Continuous limb pain (n = 6) Paroxysmal limb pain (n = 9) Painful tonic spasms (PTS) (n = 8) | Continuous limb pain: no relief in 5/6. Significant relief of paroxysmal limb pain and PST to varying degrees | Cianchetti et al. (1999) |
Sativex (THC : CBD) (<8 sprays in 3 h to max of 48 sprays per day) | Open-label | CNP (n = 63) | Significant relief with no evidence of tolerance. Adverse effects reported by 92 % of patients | Rog et al. (2007) |
Morphine (41 mg) | Non-randomised, single-blind, placebo-controlled | Chronic central pain (non-trigeminal) (n = 14) | Effective pain relief in 4/14 patients only after high doses | Kalman et al. (2002) |
MS-associated paroxysmal neuropathic pain (Trigeminal neuralgia/L’hermitte’s sign) | ||||
Carbamazepine (760 mg) | Double-blind, placebo-controlled | TN (n = 9) Paroxysmal paraesthesia (n = 3) Paroxysmal limb pain (n = 7) | TN: 4/9 (complete relief) Paroxysmal paraesthesia: 3/3 (complete relief) Paroxysmal limb pain: Partial or no relief | Espir and Millac (1970) |
Carbamazepine (dose not reported) | Open-label | TN (n = 35) |
n = 27 10/27 (complete relief) 10/27 (partial relief) 12/27 (subsequently went for surgical treatment) | (Hooge and Redekop 1995) |
Oxcarbazepine (600–1,200 mg) | Open-label | Paroxysmal pain (n = 12) | 9/12 (complete pain relief) 1/12 (incomplete pain relief) 2/12 (discontinued study due to side effects) | Solaro et al. (2007) |
Lamotrigine (150–200 mg) | Open-label | TN (n = 5) | 5/5 (complete relief) | Lunardi et al. (1997) |
Lamotrigine (25–400 mg) | Open-label | TN (n = 18) | 17/18 (complete or nearly complete pain relief) | Leandri et al. (2000) |
Carbamazepine (400 mg) + Gabapentin (850 mg) (Gp-1) | Open-label | TN Gp-1 (n = 6) Gp-2 (n = 5) | Gp-1: 5/6 (complete pain relief) Gp-2: 5/5 (complete pain relief) Significant pain relief by co-administered gabapentin and lamotrigine at lower doses c.f. either component alone | Solaro et al. (2000) |
Lamotrigine (150 mg) + Gabapentin (780 mg) (Gp-2) | ||||
Gabapentin (600–1,200 mg) | Open-label | TN (n = 6) Dysesthesia (n = 3) PTS (n = 11) Ocular ataxia (n = 1) | TN: 5/6 (complete relief) Other symptoms: improved in all patients | Solaro et al. (1998) |
Pregabalin (75–300 mg) | Open-label | TN (n = 2) Paroxysmal dysaesthesia (n = 7) PTS (n = 6) Dystonia of upper limbs (n = 1) | 9/16 (complete relief) 4/16 (partial relief) Efficacy for each pain type not reported | Solaro et al. (2009) |
Misoprostol (300–800 μg) | Open-label | TN (n = 7) | 6/7 (complete or partial pain relief) | Reder and Arnason (1995) |
Misoprostol (600 μg) | Open-label | TN (n = 18) | 8/18 (complete pain relief after 2 weeks) | DMKG study group (2003) |
Topiramate (200–300 mg) | Open-label | TN (n = 6) | 5/6 (complete relief) Pain relief in 6th patient achieved by concomitant use of carbamazepine | Zvartau-Hind et al. (2000) |
Topiramate (200–300 mg) | Open-label | TN (n = 4) Paroxysmal dysaesthesia (n = 4) PTS (n = 5) | Incomplete pain relief for all symptoms. Very good pain relief (VAS score ≤3) for TN and paroxysmal pain | D’Aleo et al. (2001) |
Lignocaine (6–8.8 mg/kg/h for 30 min followed by maintenance dose of 2–2.8 mg/kg/h Mexiletine (300–400 mg) | Open-label | LH (n = 12) PTS (n = 10) Itching/pain (n = 7) Persistent dysaesthesia (n = 15) | LH: 10/12 (resolved with lidocaine); PTS: 7/10 (resolved with lidocaine) 10/10 (relieved with mexiletine) Itching/pain: 7/7 (relieved with lidocaine or mexiletine) Persistent dysaesthesia: Partial relief | Sakurai and Kanazawa (1999) |
Treatment of MS-induced persistent neuropathic pain
Treatment of MS-induced trigeminal neuralgia (paroxysmal pain)
Treatment of MS-induced L’hermitte’s sign (paroxysmal pain)
Pathophysiology of MS-induced neuropathic pain
Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) rodent models of MS
Species | Strain | Encephalitogen | Clinical/pathological features | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Mice | C57BL/6 | MOG35–55
| Chronic-progressive inflammatory demyelinating disease | Mendel et al. (1995) |
MOG35–55
| Inflammatory demyelinating disease with rMOG35–55 whereas hMOG35–55 produced mild inflammation with no CNS demyelination | Albouz-Abo et al. (1997) | ||
MOG35–55
| RR disease course characterised by CNS inflammation and demyelination | Peiris et al. (2007) | ||
PLP178–191
| Milder disease relative to MOG-induced EAE in BL6 mice | Li et al. (2011) | ||
SJL/J | MOG92–106
| RR with mild CNS demyelination | Tsunoda et al. (2000) | |
PLP139–151
| Severe RR disease course; extensive CNS demyelination and inflammation | McRae et al. (1992) | ||
Biozzi AB/H | MBP12–26
| Mild EAE disease; subpial and perivascular infiltrates in CNS | Amor et al. (1996) | |
PLP56–70
| Chronic relapsing; demyelination and infiltrates in the CNS | Amor et al. (1993) | ||
NOD/Lt | MOG35–55
| RR with cellular infiltration and multifocal CNS demyelination | Slavin et al. (1998) | |
SJL.B | MOG35–55
| RR disease course | Li et al. (2011) | |
Rats | Lewis | Gp and rMBP68–88
| Gp MBP was more encephalitogenic with increased T-cell proliferation and circulating antibodies relative to rMBP | Kibler et al. (1977) |
Bovine PLP | Mild clinical disease; significant CNS demyelination | Yamamura et al. (1986) | ||
MOG1–20; MOG35–55
| CNS inflammation without demyelination | Adelmann et al. (1995) | ||
MOG1–125
| Mild disease with acute inflammatory demyelination | Adelmann et al. (1995) | ||
Dark Agouti | MOG1–125
| Chronic and/or relapsing disease with demyelination | Weissert et al. (1998) | |
SCH | RR characterised by demyelinating inflammatory lesions in spinal cord, T-cell infiltrates and perivascular evidence of immunoglobulins and complement | Lorentzen et al. (1995) | ||
Brown Norway | MOG1–125
| Acute clinical disease course; significant CNS demyelination and inflammation | Stefferl et al. (1999) |
Pathobiology of MS-neuropathic pain: insights from EAE-rodent models
Species, sex/age or weight | Myelin antigen emulsified in CFA | Nociceptive assessments/drug treatments | Main findings | References |
---|---|---|---|---|
EAE-mouse models | ||||
SJL/J ♂♀ 6–8 weeks | PLP139–151 (150 μg) | Thermal nociception in forepaws and tail (Hargreaves test) | Nociceptive changes prominent in tail; thermal hyponociception and hypernociception present during peak disease and recovery phase, respectively; more persistent hyperalgesia in female mice | Aicher et al. (2004) |
C57BL/6 ♀ 8–10 weeks | MOG35–55 (100 μg) | Mechanical hypersensitivity in hindpaws (electronic von Frey device) | Mechanical hypernociception before onset of clinical motor deficits | Rodrigues et al. (2009) |
C57BL/6 ♀ 10–12 weeks | MOG35–55 (50 μg) | Thermal nociception (Hargreaves test), cold allodynia (acetone test) and mechanical allodynia (von Frey filaments) assessed in hindpaws | Insignificant thermal hyperalgesia; robust cold and mechanical allodynia prior to and during onset of clinical disease; hyponociception during peak disease | Olechowski et al. (2009) |
C57BL/6 ♀ 10–12 weeks | MOG35–55 (50 μg) | Noxious chemical stimulation due to intraplantar formalin injection in one hindpaw | Hyponociception in formalin-injected hindpaws of EAE-mice. Nociceptive responses normalised by treatment with MS-153 (glutamate transporter activator) or LY-341495 (mGluR2/3 antagonist) | Olechowski et al. (2010) |
Drug treatments: | ||||
MS-153 (10 mg/kg; I.P), | ||||
LY-341495 (0.25 mg/kg; I.P) | ||||
SJL/J ♀ 8 weeks | PLP139–151 (100 μg) | Thermal (Hargreaves test); mechanical allodynia (von Frey filaments) assessed in hindpaws | Robust thermal hyperalgesia and mechanical allodynia in hindpaws of SJL/J mice during chronic disease; mild mechanical allodynia in hindpaws of C57BL/6 mice during onset and peak disease | Lu et al. (2012) |
C57BL/6 ♀ 8 weeks | MOG35–55 (50 μg) | |||
C57BL/6 ♀ 7–8 weeks | MOG35–55 (400 μg) + Booster dose | Paw withdrawal latency to acute thermal nociception; (hot plate) | Thermal hyperalgesia in EAE-mice during disease onset and later phases of disease; OGF treatment reversed thermal hyperalgesia and attenuated disease progression in EAE-mice | Campbell et al. (2012) |
Drug treatments: | ||||
OGF (10 mg/kg; I.P) | ||||
C57BL/6 ♀ 10–12 weeks | MOG35–55 (100 μg) | Mechanical allodynia (von Frey filaments) in fore- and hindpaws | Mechanical allodynia observed in both fore- and hindpaws before onset of motor deficits; Box5 and indomethacin alleviated mechanical allodynia | Yuan et al. (2012) |
Drug treatments: | ||||
Wnt5a antagonist Box5 (10 μg; I.T) Indomethacin (100 μg; I.T) | ||||
C57BL/6 ♀ 8–12 weeks | MOG35–55 (300 μg) + Booster dose | Mechanical allodynia (von Frey filaments) in hindpaws | Mechanical allodynia prior to clinical disease onset; Rapamycin significantly reduced mechanical allodynia in hindpaws of EAE-mice and prevented development of clinical and histological signs of EAE disease when given prophylactically | Lisi et al. (2012) |
Drug treatments: | ||||
Rapamycin (1 mg/kg; I.P) | ||||
C57BL/6 ♀ 10–12 weeks | MOG35–55 (50 μg) | Mechanical allodynia (von Frey filaments) in hindpaws. Association of nociceptive behaviour with cognitive deficits in EAE-mice also investigated | Robust mechanical allodynia prior to and during clinical disease onset. Development of cognitive impairment concurrently with mechanical allodynia in hindpaws Ceftriaxone attenuated mechanical allodynia and cognitive deficits | Olechowski et al. (2013) |
Drug treatments: | ||||
Ceftriaxone (200 mg/kg; I.P) | ||||
C57BL/6 ♀ 6–10 weeks | MOG35–55 (200 μg) | Tactile allodynia (von Frey filament) and thermal hyperalgesia (hot plate) | Attenuation of mechanical allodynia by DALBK, a selective B1 receptor antagonist; abolished in B1R−/−mice. Mechanical allodynia exacerbated by DABK, a selective B1 receptor agonist. Thermal hyperalgesia reduced by HOE-140 (selective B2 receptor antagonist); abolished in B2R−/−mice | Dutra et al. (2013) |
Drug treatments: | ||||
des-Arg9-[Leu8]-BK (DALBK) (50 nmol/kg; I.P) des-Arg9-BK (DABK) (300 nmol/kg; I.P) HOE-140 (150 nmol/kg; I.P) | ||||
C57BL/6 ♀ 12–16 weeks | MOG35–55 (100 μg) | Mechanical hyperalgesia (dynamic plantar aesthesiometer), cold allodynia (acetone test); heat hyperalgesia (hot plate) in hindpaws | Nociceptive testing before clinical disease onset; significant decrease in mechanical hyperalgesia and cold allodynia in CXCR3−/− EAE-mice; also decreased EAE disease severity. Insignificant decrease in pain endpoints in plt/plt (CCL19/21) deficient mice | Schmitz et al. (2013) |
EAE-rat models | ||||
Lewis ♂♀ 8–10 weeks | Whole spinal cord (30 % suspension) or MBP (50 μg) | Vocalisation in response to noxious mechanical stimuli (applying pressure between thumbnails) in tail | No vocalisation in response to noxious mechanical stimuli applied to tail concurrent with ascending tail paralysis | Pender, (1986a) |
Lewis ♀ (200 g) | SCH | Thermal hyperalgesia (hot plate) | Thermal hyperalgesia and motor deficits improved during chronic demyelinating phase of the disease by chronic administration of an [ACTH]4–9 analogue (neurotrophic peptide) | Duckers et al. (1996) |
Drug treatments: | ||||
[ACTH]4–9 analogue (75 μg/kg; S.C) | ||||
Lewis ♂ 7–8 weeks | MBP (100 μg) | Nociceptive behaviours not recorded | Increased CREB phosphorylation in spinal cord of EAE-rats during peak disease implicated in pathogenesis of neuropathic pain | Kim et al. (2007) |
Dark Agouti ♂ (250–300 g) | MOG1–125
(35 μg in IF) | Mechanical allodynia (von Frey filaments) in hindpaws | Hyponociception observed prior to onset of motor symptoms. During remission phase, robust mechanical allodynia in hindpaws. IL-10 gene therapy alleviated mechanical allodynia and significantly reduced paralysis | Sloane et al. (2009) |
Drug treatments: | ||||
pDNA-IL-10F129S (plasmid DNA containing IL-10 gene); I.T | ||||
Dark Agouti ♂ (250–300 g) | MOG1–125
(10 or 8.75 μg in IF) | Mechanical allodynia (von Frey filaments) in hindpaws | Significant mechanical allodynia before onset of motor deficits. Ceftriaxone reversed mechanical allodynia in EAE-rats and attenuated hind limb paralysis | Ramos et al. (2010) |
Drug treatments: | ||||
Ceftriaxone (150 μg; I.T) | ||||
Lewis ♀ 5 weeks | MBP (500 μg) (Classical EAE) or MBP (500 μg) + cyclosporine (EAE + cyclosporine) | Mechanical allodynia (von Frey filaments), dynamic mechanical allodynia (paint-brush test), mechanical hyperalgesia (pinch test), cold allodynia/hyperalgesia (cold plate or 2 °C ice-cooled water), heat allodynia (42 °C water bath); hindpaws or tail | Dynamic mechanical allodynia not observed; other nociceptive behaviours were mostly robust and persistent over EAE disease course in rats administered cyclosporine Gabapentin-alleviated mechanical hyperalgesia; duloxetine- and tramadol-attenuated cold allodynia and cold hyperalgesia. EAE disease course remained unaffected | Thibault et al. (2011) |
Drug treatments: | ||||
(used in EAE + cyclosporine group) Acetaminophen (300 mg/kg; I.P) Duloxetine (30 mg/kg; I.P) Gabapentin (45 mg/kg; I.P) Tramadol (20 mg/kg; I.P) | ||||
Lewis ♀ | MBP (100 μg) | Nociceptive behaviour not recorded. | Elevated TNF-α expression in DRGs; anterograde transport to spinal cord implicated in development of neuropathic pain behaviours in EAE-rats | Melanson et al. 2009) |
Lewis ♀ | MBP (100 μg) | Mechanical allodynia (von Frey filaments) in hindpaws; thermal nociception (Hargreaves test) in tail, fore- and hindpaws | Mechanical allodynia in hindpaws not observed. Thermal hypoalgesia in tail and paws of EAE-rats during disease onset that was correlated with elevated TNF-α expression in DRGs and spinal cord | Begum et al. (2013) |