Recent studies in mice with repeated airway delivery of native allergens or respiratory viruses have highlighted the critical role of innate signaling in the generation of allergic pulmonary inflammation, which shows that the complex immunologic response not only includes Th2 cell-driven inflammation, but also the participation of Th1, Th2, Th17, natural killer T cells, and airway epithelial cells (ECs). ECs in particular can influence the functions of local immune cells via the expression of a wide range of molecules, including MHC-I and MHC-II, costimulatory molecules, chemokines, cytokines, and prostaglandins. During the past few years, a particular interest has been growing in three novel EC-derived cytokines, thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP), IL-25, and IL-33, and their ability to influence innate and adaptive immunity associated with Th2 cytokine-mediated inflammation at mucosal sites [
92,
93]. TSLP affects DCs, T cells, natural killer T cells, and mast cells. IL-25 primarily influences macrophages, Th2 cells, eosinophils, and mast cells. IL-33 acts on T cells, mast cells, eosinophils, and basophils, illustrating the broad role of these cytokines in the regulation of inflammatory/allergic processes [
93]. However, these cytokines seem to have dual functions, as they are involved in the development of protective Th2 cytokine responses in the context of helminth infections and strongly promote pathologic responses in cases of allergic inflammation [
94]. In view of the hypothesis that certain helminth infections may protect against allergic diseases, it seems contradictory that helminths also induce these strong allergic inflammation-inducing cytokines. However, the location and timing may be important factors. For example, TSLP expression in the skin and lung has been linked to pathologic Th2 cytokine-mediated responses, whereas TSLP expression in the intestine seems to play an important role in host protective immunity, as TSLPR-deficient mice challenged with
Trichuris failed to clear worms after infection [
95]. However, TSLP does not seem to be essential to every intestinal helminth because the development of protective Th2 immune responses after infection with
H. polygyrus and
N. brasiliensis was still intact in TSLPR
−/− mice [
96]. Similarly, using the same knockout mice, it was found that TSLPR signaling played only a minor role in the development of Th2-dependent pathology in the lung, liver, and intestine against
S. mansoni eggs [
97]. Collectively, these findings suggest that although TSLPR signaling serves a key role in allergen-driven Th2 responses, it exerts only restricted regulatory activity during certain chronic helminth infections. Similar to TSLP, IL-25 is required for the development of a Th2 cytokine-mediated response and protective immunity following
Trichuris or
Nippostrongylus infection, as IL-25-deficient mice could not clear the infection or showed a delayed expulsion [
98,
99]. At this stage, it is unclear whether IL-25 is induced only at the beginning—during the acute phase of infection—and how its activity is influenced by the immunoregulatory processes that take place during chronic and severe helminth infections. Little is known about IL-33 induction by helminths; thus far, its presence has only been described following infection with
Trichuris, in which the expression peaked early during infection, indicating that IL-33 acts primarily during the initiation of these responses [
100]. More studies must be carried out to evaluate the role of IL-33 in helminth infection, although initial studies favor a model in which IL-33 is induced early during infection and not so much during chronic—allergy-protective—stages.
In helminth-infected or nonallergic, healthy individuals, T cells remain nonresponsive to harmless allergens, likely by actively created mucosal tolerance. New concepts are being introduced that suggest that mucosal tolerance to allergens may result from “tolerant” cross-talk between lung ECs and mucosal DCs. In this respect, lessons can be learned from the gut, in which intestinal ECs were found to drive the differentiation of Treg-promoting DCs via the expression of TGF-β and retinoic acid [
101]. Likewise, a similar role in homeostasis is suggested for lung ECs via promotion of anti-inflammatory and prophagocytic cells (eg, primary bronchial ECs induced macrophage differentiation from monocytes [
102], whereas a lung epithelial cell line inhibited IL-12 and tumor necrosis factor-α production from antigen-presenting cells) [
103]. Tolerance induction in the gut is strongly dependent on steady-state recognition of normal microbiota, as demonstrated in germ-free or knockout mice for specific TLRs, which recognize conserved microbial motifs [
104]. Interestingly, molecules from several microorganisms could also induce IL-10 production in lung epithelial cell lines [
105,
106]. These recent findings point toward a novel and exciting concept that microbial organisms can influence tolerance under homeostatic conditions by influencing cross-talk between ECs and other immune cells and pose the question of in which respect helminth species could interfere in the cross-talk of ECs and other immune cells.