The antibiotic prescribing process in nursing homes is complex and differs from the prescribing process in hospital and clinic settings. |
Improvements in the quality of antibiotic prescribing in nursing homes have been achieved through a variety of antibiotic stewardship interventions. |
Implementing and sustaining antibiotic stewardship in nursing homes requires an organizational commitment and a strategy based on goal setting, process and outcome measurement, and continuous quality improvement. |
It is not difficult to make microbes resistant to penicillin … The time may come when penicillin can be bought by anyone in the shops. Then there is the danger that the ignorant man may easily under dose himself and by exposing his microbes to non-lethal quantities of the drug make them resistant.-Alexander Fleming’s Nobel Prize Acceptance Lecture, 1945
1 Introduction
2 The Need for Antibiotic Stewardship in Nursing Homes
3 The Antibiotic Prescribing Process
4 Barriers to Improving Antibiotic Use in Nursing Homes
5 Existing Studies of Antibiotic Stewardship in Nursing Homes
References | Study characteristics | Interventions | Outcomes |
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Naughton et al. [88] | Design: cluster-randomized study in 10 NHs Focus: NH-acquired pneumonia Randomization: 5 NHs allocated to an educational intervention targeted at prescribers only (5 NHs) and 5 NHs allocated to an educational intervention targeted at prescribers and nursing staff | 1. Prescriber-only facilities: (a) Small group sessions in which guidelines were modified on the basis of prescriber feedback (b) Laminated pocket cards summarizing treatment of pneumonia 2. Prescriber and nursing staff facilities: (a) Small group sessions for providers and nursing staff (b) Laminated pocket cards summarizing treatment of pneumonia (c) Laminated posters placed near facility telephones used to contact prescribing providers | 1. Guideline adherence (before/after): (a) All NHs: (i) All antibiotics: 60.1 vs 67.2 % (NS) (ii) PO antibiotics: 57.6 vs 59.6 % (NS) (iii) IV antibiotics: 62.2 vs 73.4 % (P < 0.02) (b) Provider-only education: (i) IV antibiotics: 64.5 vs 69 % (NS) (c) Provider and nursing staff education: (i) IV antibiotics: 50 vs 81.8 % (P = 0.13) 2. 30-day mortality (before/after): (a) All NHs: 23.9 vs 18.1 % (NS) |
Loeb et al. [80] | Design: cluster-randomized study in 24 NHs Focus: UTI Randomization: 12 NHs allocated to a multifaceted intervention and 12 NHs allocated to usual care | 1. Diagnostic and treatment algorithm for UTI 2. Education of nursing staff (small group) and prescribers (individual) 3. Pocket cards and posters with algorithms | 1. Treatment of suspected UTI (intervention vs usual care): (a) Antibiotic starts: −0.49 per 1000 resident-days (95 % CI −0.93 to −0.06) (b) DDDs: −3.85 per 1000 resident-days (95 % CI −7.37 to −0.34) 2. Treatment of all infections (intervention vs usual care): (a) Antibiotic starts: −0.37 per 1000 resident-days (95 % CI −1.17 to 0.44) |
Schwartz et al. [81] | Design: before/after, single-centre study Focus: all infections Randomization: N/A | 1. Locally developed prescribing guideline 2. Audit of baseline rates of antibiotic resistance in the study facility 3. 4 small group sessions demonstrating case-based application of guidelines and review of resistance audit 4. Pocket booklet of prescribing guideline | 1. Infection management (based on random sample of 100 pre- and 100 post-intervention cases): (a) Diagnostic accuracy: 32 vs 62 % (P = 0.006) (b) Treatment concordance with guidelines: 11 vs 39 % (P < 0.001) 2. Antibiotic utilization (all prescribing events): (a) Antibiotic starts: −25.9 % (P = 0.06) (b) Antibiotic days: −29.7 % (P < 0.001) |
Monette et al. [89] | Design: cluster-randomized study in 8 NHs Focus: all infections Randomization: 4 NHs allocated to multifaceted intervention and 4 NHs allocated to usual care | 1. Antibiotic guide mailed to prescribers; initial mailing followed by second mailing 4 months later 2. Individual profile of prescribing patterns (guideline adherence) over previous 3 months mailed to providers; initial mailing followed by second mailing 4 months later | 1. Likelihood of guideline non-adherence in intervention arm: (a) After first mailing: 0.47 (95 % CI 0.21–1.05) (b) After second mailing: 0.36 (95 % CI 0.18–0.73) (c) 6-month follow-up: 0.48 (95 % CI 0.23–1.02) |
Zabarsky et al. [82] | Design: before/after, single-centre study Focus: UTIs Randomization: N/A | 1. Baseline and semi-annual education of nursing staff focused on indications for testing resident urine samples 2. Baseline and semi-annual education of primary care staff focused on diagnosis of UTI and avoiding treatment of ASB 3. Pocket reference cards tailored to nursing and primary care staff roles 4. Posters displayed at computer stations used by nursing and primary care staff 5. Audit and feedback to nursing and primary care staff when inappropriate testing and treatment of ASB identified | 1. Urine culture rate (before/after): decreased from 3.7 to 1.5 cultures per 1000 resident-days (IRR 0.41; 95 % CI 0.27–0.64; P < 0.001) 2. ASB treatment rate (before/after): decreased from 1.7 to 0.6 events per 1000 resident-days (IRR 0.37; 95 % CI 0.19–0.72; P = 0.002) 3. Antibiotic days of treatment (before/after): decreased from 167.1 to 117.4 antibiotic days per 1000 resident-days (P < 0.001) |
Pettersson et al. [83] | Design: cluster-randomized study in 58 NHs Focus: all infections (guideline intervention primarily focused on management of UTI in women) Randomization: 29 NHs allocated to multifaceted intervention (26 included in final analyses) and 29 NHs allocated to usual care (20 included in final analyses) Outcome data collected by participants rather than investigators | 1. Regionally developed antibiotic prescribing guideline 2. Audit of baseline prescribing patterns and local antibiotic resistance patterns 3. 2 educational sessions delivered to nursing staff and prescribing providers, focused on: (a) Content of prescribing guideline (b) Review of facility-specific prescribing patterns and local antibiotic resistance patterns (c) Identification of barriers to change 4. Printed educational materials focused on hygiene and prescribing guideline disseminated | 1. Primary outcome: (a) Change in percentage of female residents receiving a fluoroquinolone antibiotic for treatment of UTI: −0.196 in intervention NHs vs −0.224 in control NHs (diff-in-diff: 0.028; 95 % CI −0.193 to 0.249) 2. Secondary outcomes: (a) Change in percentage of residents receiving an antibiotic for treatment of any infection (before/after): −0.076 in intervention NHs and 0.048 in control NHs (diff-in-diff: −0.124; 95 % CI −0.228 to −0.019) (b) Change in percentage of residents managed with ‘wait and see’ approach (before/after): 0.093 in intervention NHs vs −0.051 in control NHs (diff-in-diff: 0.143; 95 % CI 0.047–0.240) (c) Change in percentage of residents receiving an antibiotic for UTI (before/after): −0.031 in intervention NHs vs −0.070 in control NHs (diff-in-diff: 0.038; 95 % CI −0.013 to 0.089) |
Linnebur et al. [90] | Design: quasi-experimental study in 16 NHs Focus: NH-acquired pneumonia Randomization: 8 NHs in Colorado non-randomly allocated to a multifaceted intervention and 8 NHs in Kansas and Missouri serving as controls | 1. Change tools: (a) Evidence-based pneumonia care pathway developed (b) Standardized order forms 2. Implementation strategies: (a) Brief educational session focused on guidelines and pneumonia pathway delivered to prescribing providers at baseline (b) Reinforcement phone calls 3 months after baseline education and in year 2 of the study (c) Paid nurse liaison in study NHs to champion use of pneumonia pathway and collect study data | 1. Change in guideline adherence (before/after): +6 % in intervention NHs vs +7 % in control NHs (P = 0.3) 2. Change in delivery of antibiotic within 4 hours (before/after): +18 % in intervention NHs vs −7 % (P < 0.001) |
Jump et al. [110] | Design: before/after, single-centre study Focus: all infections Randomization: N/A | 1. Weekly infectious disease consultant review of residents receiving antibiotics, with feedback of recommendations to providers 2. 24/7 telephone infectious disease consultative services made available to prescribing providers | 1. All antibiotic DOT (before/after): decreased from 175.1 to 122.3 days per 1000 resident-days (IRR 0.60; P < 0.001) 2. Oral antibiotic DOT (before/after): decreased from 136.1 to 93.1 days per 1000 resident-days (IRR 0.59; P < 0.001) 3. Intravenous antibiotic DOT (before/after): decreased from 39.0 to 29.3 days per 1000 resident-days (IRR 0.75; P = 0.01) |
Frentzel et al. [84] | Design: quasi-experimental study in 12 NHs Focus: UTIs Randomization: 4 NHs allocated to the standardized form intervention using a high-intensity implementation plan, 4 NHs allocated to the standardized form intervention using a low-intensity implementation plan and 4 NHs allocated to usual care | 1. Change tools: (a) Standardized form designed to structure documentation of resident signs/symptoms and facilitate decision-making around treatment of UTI 2. Implementation strategies: (a) Letter describing purpose of form sent out to providers (b) In-person training of nursing staff (1 session in low-intensity NHs and 2 sessions in high-intensity NHs) (c) Technical support for intervention NHs (passive in low-intensity NHs and active in high-intensity NHs) | 1. Change in treatment of ASB: (a) High-fidelity NHs (n = 4; before/after): decreased from 73.2 to 49.4 % (regression-adjusted OR 0.35; 95 % CI 0.16–0.76) (b) Low-fidelity and control NHs (n = 8; before/after): decreased from 69.6 to 68.8 % (regression-adjusted OR 1.93; 95 % CI 1.05–3.56) |
Zimmerman et al. [85] | Design: quasi-experimental study in 12 NHs Focus: respiratory infections and UTIs Randomization: 6 NHs in one geographic region allocated to multifaceted intervention and 6 NHs in another geographic region allocated to usual care | 1. Standardization of inter-professional communication through MCRF 2. Nurse in-services focused on use of MCRF, as well as identification and testing of residents with suspected infection 3. Prescriber education focused on purpose of MCRF, as well as diagnosis and treatment of common infections 4. Pocket cards summarizing content of educational sessions 5. Resident/family informational brochure focused on benefits and risks of antibiotic therapy 6. Facility-level review of adherence to treatment recommendations addressed in educational sessions | 1. All antibiotic starts per 1000 resident-days (before/after): −3.65 in intervention NHs and −0.90 in control NHs (diff-in-diff −2.75; regression-adjusted IRR 0.86; 95 % CI 0.79–0.95) 2. Antibiotic starts for respiratory tract infection: IRR 0.71 (95 % CI 0.56–0.90) 3. Antibiotic starts for UTI: IRR 0.84 (95 % CI 0.66–1.05) 4. Antibiotic starts for skin and soft tissue infection: IRR 0.89 (95 % CI 0.62–1.28) |
Furuno et al. [91] | Design: before/after, single-centre study Focus: culture-confirmed infections Randomization: N/A | 1. Facility-specific antibiograms (frequency tables summarizing rates of resistance to selected antibiotics among different types of bacteria) were developed 2. Results of antibiograms were presented at in-services with advice on how to use these data when selecting antibiotic therapy | 1. Culture-concordant antibiotic therapy increased from 32 to 45 % (P = 0.32) |
Fleet et al. [109] | Design: cluster-randomized study in 30 NHs Focus: all infections Randomization: 15 NHs allocated to a prescribing care bundle intervention and 15 NHs allocated to usual care | 1. ‘Initiation of Treatment’ form focused on the following process elements: (a) Documentation of resident signs/symptoms (b) Documentation of diagnosis (c) Obtaining tests before starting antibiotic (d) Timing and appropriateness of antibiotic 2. ‘Review of Treatment’ form focused on the following process elements: (a) Review of resident progress (b) Review of test results (c) Stop date and outcomes of treatment documented | 1. Antibiotic starts per 100 residents (before/after): +0.06 (P = 0.94) in intervention NHs vs +0.56 (P = 0.4) in control NHs 2. Antibiotic consumption (DDDs) per 1000 resident-days (before/after): −3.25 (P = 0.02) in intervention NHs vs +2.24 (P = 0.04) in control NHs |
Doron et al. [86] | Design: before/after study in 17 NHs Focus: UTIs Randomization: N/A | 1. Change tools: (a) UTI protocol to guide decisions about testing and treatment (b) Clinician educational curriculum focused on appropriate urine testing and avoidance of treating ASB (c) Resident/family member educational curriculum about UTI and risks and benefits of antibiotics (d) Posters and handouts summarizing important aspects of educational curriculum (e) Data collection instrument and instructional materials 2. Implementation strategies: (a) 2 full-day workshops focused on rationale for and use of change tools (b) Regular webinars focused on implementing change tools (c) Collaborative conference calls (d) One-on-one coaching | 1. Urine culture rate: IRR 0.73 (95 % CI 0.66–0.79) 2. UTI treatment rate: IRR 0.67 (95 % CI 0.59–0.76) 3. Clostridium difficile rate: IRR 0.55 (95 % CI 0.39–0.78) |
Trautner et al. [87] | Design: before/after study with contemporary control group Focus: UTIs Randomization: N/A | 1. Algorithm created to make catheter-associated UTI and ASB guidelines applicable at point of care 2. Use of algorithm taught through case-based audit and feedback during in-services | 1. Number of urine cultures ordered (acute and long-term care) decreased from 41.2 to 23.3 per 1000 bed-days during the intervention year (P < 0.0001) and decreased further during the maintenance year to 12.0 per 1000 bed-days (P < 0.0001) 2. Treatment of ASB decreased from 52 to 10 % (P = 0.001) in long-term care intervention units |