Introduction
Data and Methods
Ethical considerations
Measurements
Outcome variable
Exposure variables
Statistical analysis
Results
Characteristics of children and women by region of residence
Characteristics | Region of residence | Total N (%) | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
North Central N (%) | North East N (%) | North West N (%) | South East N (%) | South South N (%) | South West N (%) | ||
Region of residence
| 1,015 (17) | 1,487 (25) | 1,821 (30) | 524 (9) | 560 (9) | 622 (10) | 6029 (100) |
Birth order
| *** | ||||||
First birth | 210 (21) | 240 (16) | 349 (19) | 99 (19) | 136 (24) | 166 (27) | 1,200 (20) |
2 - 4 birth order | 473 (46) | 603 (41) | 759 (42) | 255 (49) | 244 (44) | 317 (51) | 2,621 (43) |
≥ 5 birth order | 332 (33) | 644 (43) | 713 (39) | 200 (38) | 180 (32) | 139 (22) | 2,208 (37) |
Sex of the child
| *** | ||||||
Female | 492 (49) | 756 (51) | 915 (50) | 283 (54) | 281 (50) | 335 (54) | 3,062 (51) |
Male | 523 (51) | 731 (49) | 906 (50) | 241 (46) | 279 (50) | 287 (46) | 2,967 (49) |
Mother's age
| *** | ||||||
≤ 23 years | 220 (22) | 396 (27) | 529 (29) | 62 (12) | 118 (21) | 86 (14) | 1,411 (23) |
24 - 33 years | 556 (55) | 716 (48) | 877 (48) | 269 (51) | 290 (52) | 362 (58) | 3,070 (51) |
≥ 34 years | 239 (23) | 375 (25) | 415 (23) | 193 (37) | 152 (27) | 174 (28) | 1,548 (26) |
Mothers' age at birth of first child
| *** | ||||||
18 years or less | 516 (51) | 998 (67) | 1258 (69) | 147 (28) | 280 (50) | 138 (22) | 3,337 (55) |
19 years or more | 499 (49) | 489 (33) | 563 (31) | 377 (72) | 280 (50) | 484 (78) | 2,692 (45) |
Marital status
| *** | ||||||
Single | 25 (2) | 7 (0) | 3 (0) | 13 (3) | 49 (9) | 12 (2) | 109 (2) |
Married | 956 (94) | 1,421 (96) | 1,775 (97) | 477 (91) | 481 (86) | 598 (96) | 5708 (95) |
Divorced | 34 (4) | 59 (4) | 43 (3) | 34 (6) | 30 (5) | 12 (2) | 212 (3) |
Religious affiliation
| *** | ||||||
Christian | 592 (58) | 215 (15) | 111 (6) | 482 (92) | 540 (97) | 367 (59) | 2307 (38) |
Muslim | 392 (39) | 1257 (84) | 1701 (93) | 0 (0) | 7 (1) | 241 (39) | 3598 (60) |
Traditional | 31 (3) | 15 (1) | 9 (1) | 42 (8) | 13 (2) | 14 (2) | 124 (2) |
Mothers' education
| *** | ||||||
No education | 416 (41) | 1,032 (69) | 1,338 (73) | 90 (17) | 52 (9) | 105 (17) | 3033 (50) |
Primary | 355 (35) | 263 (18) | 248 (14) | 210 (40) | 195 (35) | 202 (32) | 1473 (25) |
Secondary or higher | 244 (24) | 192 (13) | 235 (13) | 224 (43) | 313 (56) | 315 (51) | 1523 (25) |
Wealth Index
| *** | ||||||
Poor | 425 (42) | 866 (58) | 876 (48) | 214 (41) | 180 (32) | 166 (27) | 2,727 (45) |
Middle | 440 (43) | 524 (36) | 762 (42) | 203 (39) | 238 (43) | 147 (24) | 2,332 (39) |
Rich | 150 (15) | 79 (6) | 183 (10) | 107 (20) | 142 (25) | 309 (49) | 970 (16) |
Characteristics | North Central N (%) | North East N (%) | North West N (%) | South East N (%) | South South N (%) | South West N (%) | Total N |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Community mother's education
| *** | ||||||
Low | 93 (9) | 485 (33) | 797 (44) | 70 (13) | 53 (9) | 116 (19) | 1,614 |
Middle | 510 (50) | 821 (55) | 841 (46) | 205 (39) | 263 (47) | 252 (40) | 2,892 |
High | 412 (41) | 181 (12) | 183 (10) | 259 (48) | 244 (44) | 254 (41) | 1,523 |
Community hospital delivery
| *** | ||||||
Low | 88 (9) | 543 (36) | 866 (48) | 8 (1) | 2 (0) | 8 (1) | 1,515 |
Middle | 640 (63) | 869 (59) | 891 (49) | 134 (26) | 317 (57) | 154 (25) | 3,005 |
High | 287 (28) | 75 (5) | 64 (3) | 382 (73) | 241 (43) | 460 (74) | 1.509 |
Community prenatal care by doctor
| *** | ||||||
Low | 511 (50) | 1,349 (91) | 1,774 (97) | 78 (15) | 61 (11) | 81 (13) | 3,854 |
High | 504 (50) | 138 (9) | 47 (3) | 446 (85) | 499 (89) | 541 (87) | 2,175 |
Risk factors of under-5 mortality
Characteristics | OR (95% CI) |
---|---|
Region of residence
| |
North Central | 1.25 (0.83 - 1.88) |
North East | 1.72 (1.14 - 2.59) |
North West | 1.71 (1.13 - 2.57) |
South East | 1.14 (0.71 - 1.84) |
South South | 1.91 (1.21 - 3.02) |
South West | 1 |
Sex of child
| |
Female | 1.08 (0.92 - 1.26) |
Male | 1 |
Birth order
| |
First birth (order 1) | 1.27 (1.00 - 1.61) |
2 - 4 birth order | 1 |
≥ 5 birth order | 1.58 (1.23 - 2.02) |
Mother's age
| |
≤ 23 years | 1.03 (0.82 - 1.31) |
24 - 28 years | 1 |
≥ 34 years | 0.96 (0.74 - 1.26) |
Mother's age at birth of first child
| |
≤ 18 years | 1.11 (0.91 - 1.36) |
≥ 19 years | 1 |
Marital status
| |
Single | 0.61 (0.29 - 1.27) |
Married | 1 |
Divorced | 1.40 (0.93 - 2.11) |
Religious affiliation
| |
Christian | 1 |
Muslim | 1.03 (0.77 - 1.37) |
Traditional | 1.67 (0.99 - 2.83) |
Mothers' education
| |
No education | 1.63 (1.21 - 2.19) |
Primary education | 1.60 (1.21 - 2.13) |
Secondary or higher education | 1 |
Wealth index
| |
Poor | 1.28 (1.02 - 1.59) |
Middle | 0.70 (0.54 - 0.92) |
Rich | 1 |
Characteristics | OR (95% CI) |
---|---|
Region of residence
| |
North Central | 1.12 (0.70 - 1.79) |
North East | 1.29 (0.79 - 2.12) |
North West | 1.15 (0.70 - 1.90) |
South East | 0.72 (0.39 - 1.33) |
South South | 1.15 (1.06 - 1.90) |
South West | 1 |
Community mother's education
| |
Low | 1.10 (0.86 - 1.39) |
Middle | 1 |
High | 1.13 (0.85 - 1.52) |
Community prenatal care by doctor
| |
Low | 1.68 (1.46 - 1.98) |
High | 1 |
Community hospital delivery
| |
Low | 1.34 (1.04 - 1.72) |
Middle | 1 |
High | 0.66 (0.44 - 0.98) |
Variables | Model 0 | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Fixed part | HR (95% CI) | HR (95% CI) | HR (95% CI) | HR (95% CI) | |
Region of residence
| |||||
North Central | 1.51 (0.99 - 2.30) | 1.50 (0.99 - 2.29) | 1.31 (0.83 - 2.07) | 1.27 (0.79 - 2.03) | |
North East | 2.41 (1.63 - 3.57) | 2.35 (1.59 - 3.49) | 1.49 (0.94 - 2.26) | 1.38 (0.83 - 2.29) | |
North West | 2.28 (1.56 - 3.34) | 2.23 (1.52 - 3.27) | 1.41 (0.89 - 2.26) | 1.29 (0.77 - 2.17) | |
South East | 1.41 (0.88 - 2.26) | 1.37 (0.85 - 2.21) | 0.65 (0.35 - 1.23) | 0.68 (0.36 - 1.28) | |
South South | 1.85 (1.17 - 2.91) | 1.82 (1.15 - 2.87) | 1.36 (1.81 - 2.30) | 1.30 (1.76 - 2.20) | |
South West | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Sex of child
| |||||
Female | 1.09 (0.93 - 1.27) | 1.04 (0.87 - 1.24) | 1.04 (0.87 - 1.24) | ||
Male | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
Birth order
| |||||
First birth (order 1) | 1.40 (1.16 - 1.68) | 1.2 (0.99 - 1.68) | 1.28 (0.98 - 1.68) | ||
2 - 4 birth order | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
≥ 5 birth order | 1.44 (1.16 - 1.80) | 1.64 (1.24 - 2.18) | 1.64 (1.24 - 2.17) | ||
Mother's age
| |||||
≤ 23 years | 1.01 (0.77 - 1.31) | 1.02 (0.78 - 1.32) | |||
24 - 28 years | 1 | 1 | |||
≥ 34 years | 0.84 (0.62 - 1.13) | 0.84 (0.62 - 1.14) | |||
Mother's age at birth of first child
| |||||
≤ 18 years | 1.12 (0.88 - 1.42) | 1.13 (0.88 - 1.44) | |||
≥ 19 years | 1 | 1 | |||
Marital status
| |||||
Single | 0.72 (0.29 - 1.78) | 0.73 (0.29 - 1.78) | |||
Married | 1 | 1 | |||
Divorced | 1.75 (1.08 - 2.82) | 1.76 (1.09 - 2.84) | |||
Religion
| |||||
Muslim | 1.09 (0.78 - 1.51) | 1.08 (0.77 - 1.50) | |||
Traditional | 1.62 (0.78 - 3.36) | 1.60 (0.77 - 3.34) | |||
Christian | 1 | 1 | |||
Mothers' education
| |||||
No education | 2.24 (1.51 - 3.32) | 2.17 (1.44 - 3.26) | |||
Primary education | 1.92 (1.35 - 2.74) | 1.90 (1.32 - 2.75) | |||
Secondary or higher education | 1 | 1 | |||
Wealth index
| |||||
Poor | 1.27 (0.98 - 1.63) | 1.23 (0.95 - 1.59) | |||
Middle | 1 | 1 | |||
Rich | 0.85 (0.62 - 1.17) | 0.89 (0.64 - 1.22) | |||
Cross-level interaction (mother's age at birth of first child & community prenatal care by doctor
| 0.94 (0.63 - 1.40) | 1.15 (0.58 - 1.51) | |||
Cross-level interaction (mother's education & community prenatal care by doctor
| 1.08 (0.25 - 1.76) | 1.41 (1.21 - 1-78) | |||
Community mother's education
| |||||
Low | 1.05 (0.83 - 1.34) | ||||
Middle | 1 | ||||
High | 1.02 (0.75 - 1.39) | ||||
Community prenatal care by doctor
| |||||
Low | 1.36 (1.15 - 1.86) | ||||
High | 1 | ||||
Community hospital delivery
| |||||
Low | 1.12 (0.87 - 1.45) | ||||
Middle | 1 | ||||
High | 0.79 (0.52 - 1.22) | ||||
Random part
| Empty | Region of residence | Child-level | Mother-level | Community-level |
ICC Mothers
| 8.2 | 7.2 | 3.5 | 3.3 | 3.3 |
Variance (SE) | 0.316 (0.137) | 0.271 (0.131)* | 0.127 (0.125) | 0.116 (0.124) | 0.120 (0.122) |
ICC Communities
| 6.6 | 5.3 | 5.4 | 3.3 | 3.1 |
Variance (SE) | 0.253 (0.074) | 0.200 (0.067)** | 0.196 (0.065)** | 0.118 (0.058)* | 0.109 (0.055)* |
Log likelihood | -2407.81 | -2392.61 | -2383.53 | -1768.31 | -1763.13 |