Background
-
▪ To analyze the “status quo” of early TBI care in Austria, using “comparative effectiveness” as the main tool
-
▪ To define areas where a change of prehospital and early hospital treatment would improve outcomes
-
▪ To develop a set of recommendations for practical changes that were most likely to improve outcomes
-
▪ To implement the proposed changes in practice
-
▪ To analyze the effects of these changes
Methods
-
To enroll all patients who were admitted during the 2 data collection phases. There were no age limits, and all patients fulfilling the defined criteria were to be enrolled, regardless whether they died in the trauma room or were transferred from another hospital.
-
In-hospital patient management was supposed to be based on the 2007 version of the BTF guidelines on TBI treatment, and was to continue as usual in each center.
-
To use of “off-line” documentation, in order to make this as simple as possible for the local study managers.
First data collection phase (Phase 1)
First data analysis
Development and implementation of recommendations
-
time factors: fast transport to an appropriate center if field GCS score <13 or other signs of neurological impairment, first CT scan within 20–30 min after arrival, in cases of intracranial hematoma interval between CT scan and surgery <60 min.
-
adequate monitoring: use of capnography in all ventilated patients, use of pulse oximetry, and use of blood pressure monitoring
-
fluid resuscitation: avoid hypotonic solutions, use of Ringer’s solution or other balanced electrolytes solutions, consider hypertonic saline in hypotonic patients
-
adequate ventilation: normoventilation (monitored by capnography)
-
early thrombelastometry (TEM) to optimize coagulation in all patients >60 years and/or on anticoagulants
-
medication: avoidance of steroids
Second data collection phase (Phase 2)
Final data analysis
Statistical analysis
Results
Phase 1 | Phase 2 | Total |
p-value* | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
n | % | n | % | n | % | ||
Total | 408 | 325 | 733 | ||||
Male | 297 | 73 | 233 | 72 | 530 | 72 | 0.804 |
Mean
|
SD
|
Mean
|
SD
|
Mean
|
SD
| ||
Age | 48 | 24 | 50 | 22 | 49 | 23 | 0.221 |
Injury Mechanism |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| |
Traffica
| 144 | 35 | 133 | 41 | 277 | 38 | 0.086 |
Fall < 3 m | 123 | 30 | 92 | 28 | 215 | 29 | |
Fall >3 m | 45 | 11 | 44 | 14 | 89 | 12 | |
Sports activity | 43 | 11 | 16 | 5 | 59 | 8 | |
Work related | 16 | 4 | 13 | 4 | 29 | 4 | |
Firearm | 5 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 8 | 1 | |
Assault | 2 | 0 | 4 | 1 | 6 | 1 | |
Other/Unknown | 30 | 7 | 20 | 6 | 50 | 7 | |
Total | 408 | 100 | 325 | 100 | 733 | 100 | |
Type of trauma |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| |
Blunt | 355 | 87 | 294 | 90 | 649 | 89 | 0.435 |
Penetrating | 29 | 7 | 18 | 6 | 47 | 6 | |
Unknown | 24 | 6 | 13 | 4 | 37 | 5 | |
Total | 408 | 100 | 325 | 100 | 733 | 100 | |
Accident Site |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| |
Home | 108 | 26 | 79 | 24 | 187 | 26 | 0.032 |
Outdoor/sports | 78 | 19 | 47 | 14 | 125 | 17 | |
Road/public area | 168 | 41 | 153 | 47 | 321 | 44 | |
Workplace | 32 | 8 | 12 | 4 | 44 | 6 | |
Unknown | 22 | 5 | 34 | 10 | 56 | 8 | |
Total | 408 | 100 | 325 | 100 | 733 | 100 |
Phase 1 | Phase 2 | Total |
p-value* | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
median | IQR | median | IQR | median | IQR | ||
GCS score | 6 | (3–6) | 7 | (3–11) | 6 | (3–11) | <0.05 |
ISS | 25 | (16–25) | 29 | (19–43) | 26 | (17–41) | <0.01 |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| ||
Field hypotensiona
| 32 | 10 | 30 | 11 | 62 | 10 | 0.887 |
Field hypoxia | 63 | 21 | 56 | 21 | 119 | 21 | 0.988 |
Pupils |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| <0.001 |
Both reactive | 334 | 82 | 206 | 63 | 540 | 74 | |
One reactive | 10 | 2 | 31 | 10 | 41 | 6 | |
None reactive | 53 | 13 | 49 | 15 | 102 | 14 | |
Not assessable/Unknown | 11 | 3 | 39 | 12 | 50 | 7 | |
Total | 408 | 100 | 325 | 100 | 733 | 100 | |
CT scan: basal cisterns |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| <0.001 |
Open | 315 | 77 | 204 | 63 | 519 | 71 | |
Compressed | 57 | 14 | 56 | 17 | 113 | 15 | |
closed | 27 | 7 | 41 | 13 | 68 | 9 | |
Unknown | 9 | 2 | 24 | 7 | 33 | 5 | |
Total | 408 | 100 | 325 | 100 | 733 | 100 | |
CT scan: midline shift |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| <0.001 |
No shift | 286 | 70 | 203 | 62 | 489 | 67 | |
<5 mm | 45 | 11 | 25 | 8 | 70 | 10 | |
>5 mm | 40 | 10 | 75 | 23 | 115 | 16 | |
Unknown | 37 | 9 | 22 | 7 | 59 | 8 | |
Total | 408 | 100 | 325 | 100 | 733 | 100 | |
CT scan: brain lesions |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| |
Subarachnoid hemorrhage | 226 | 55 | 190 | 58 | 416 | 57 | 0.825 |
Subdural hematoma | 213 | 52 | 166 | 51 | 379 | 52 | 0.869 |
Contusions | 140 | 34 | 135 | 42 | 275 | 38 | 0.228 |
Intracerebral hematoma | 78 | 19 | 68 | 21 | 146 | 20 | 0.701 |
Epidural hematoma | 60 | 15 | 62 | 19 | 122 | 17 | 0.231 |
Intraventricular hemorrhage | 35 | 9 | 33 | 10 | 68 | 9 | 0.6 |
Hemorrhage in basal cisterns | 28 | 7 | 24 | 7 | 52 | 7 | 0.928 |
Predominant injury |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| |
Normal CT | 36 | 9 | 21 | 6 | 57 | 8 | 0.572 |
Contusions | 38 | 9 | 39 | 12 | 77 | 11 | |
Diffuse edema | 47 | 12 | 47 | 14 | 94 | 13 | |
Subarachnoid hemorrhage | 68 | 17 | 43 | 13 | 111 | 15 | |
Epidural hematoma | 37 | 9 | 29 | 9 | 66 | 9 | |
Subdural hematoma | 129 | 32 | 105 | 32 | 234 | 32 | |
Intracerebral hematoma | 39 | 10 | 26 | 8 | 65 | 9 | |
Intraventricular hemorrhage | 8 | 2 | 7 | 2 | 15 | 2 | |
Unknown | 6 | 1 | 8 | 2 | 14 | 2 | |
Total | 408 | 100 | 325 | 100 | 733 | 100 | |
Expected outcomes
|
mean (%)
|
SD
|
mean (%)
|
SD
|
mean (%)
|
SD
| |
Probability of deathb
| 33 | 20 | 34 | 21 | 33 | 20 | 0.8517 |
Probability of unfavorable outcomea
| 55 | 22 | 55 | 24 | 55 | 23 | 0.8517 |
Phase 1 | Phase 2 | Total |
p-value* | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Transport |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| |
Direct | 317 | 78 | 282 | 87 | 599 | 82 | <0.01 |
Secondary | 70 | 17 | 32 | 10 | 102 | 14 | |
Unknown | 21 | 5 | 11 | 3 | 32 | 4 | |
Total | 408 | 100 | 325 | 100 | 733 | 100 | |
Time intervals |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| |
EMS arrival - hospital admission <60 min | 167 | 41 | 197 | 61 | 364 | 50 | <0.01 |
Hospital admission - CT scan <60 min | 269 | 66 | 242 | 74 | 511 | 70 | 0.854 |
Hospital admission - OR <120 | 131 | 32 | 118 | 36 | 249 | 34 | 0.995 |
Prehospital monitoring |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| |
Pulse oximetry used | 298 | 73 | 284 | 87 | 582 | 79 | 0.969 |
Blood pressure monitoring used | 291 | 71 | 267 | 82 | 558 | 76 | 0.966 |
Capnography in ventilated patients | 123 | 57 | 131 | 78 | 254 | 35 | 0.121 |
Prehospital ventilation |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| |
Hyperventilation (pCO2 < 35 mmHg) | 81 | 20 | 47 | 14 | 128 | 17 | 0.083 |
Normoventialtion (pCO2 35–42 mmHg) | 64 | 16 | 59 | 18 | 123 | 17 | |
Hypoventilation (pCO2 > 42 mmHg) | 10 | 2 | 13 | 4 | 23 | 3 | |
Unknown | 253 | 62 | 206 | 63 | 459 | 63 | |
Total | 408 | 100 | 325 | 100 | 733 | 100 | |
Prehospital fluid resuscitation |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| |
Ringer's lactate | 109 | 27 | 65 | 20 | 174 | 24 | 0.096 |
Ringer's solution | 102 | 25 | 110 | 34 | 212 | 29 | 0.148 |
Other electrolyte solution | 71 | 17 | 74 | 23 | 145 | 20 | 0.283 |
Colloids | 105 | 26 | 59 | 18 | 164 | 22 | <0.05 |
Hypertonic saline | 22 | 5 | 15 | 5 | 37 | 5 | 0.665 |
Other treatment options |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| |
Trombelastometry done | 99 | 24 | 129 | 40 | 228 | 31 | 0.212 |
Corticosteroids given | 15 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 18 | 2 | 0.045 |
Phase 1 | Phase 2 | Total |
p-value* | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Survival |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
| |
TR deaths | 9 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 13 | 2 | 0.1242 |
ICU deaths | 106 | 26 | 67 | 21 | 173 | 24 | <0.001 |
Hospital deaths | 118 | 29 | 72 | 22 | 190 | 26 | <0.001 |
6 m deaths | 127 | 31 | 72 | 22 | 199 | 27 | <0.001 |
Unknown at 6 m | 179 | 44 | 39 | 12 | 218 | 30 | |
Total | 408 | 100 | 325 | 100 | 733 | 100 | |
6 month outcome |
n
|
%
|
n
|
%
|
n |
%
| |
Favorable | 75 | 18 | 181 | 56 | 256 | 35 | <0.001 |
Unfavorable | 154 | 38 | 105 | 32 | 259 | 35 | |
Unknown | 179 | 44 | 39 | 12 | 218 | 30 | |
Grand Total | 408 | 100 | 325 | 100 | 733 | 100 |
Phase 1 | Phase 2 | |
---|---|---|
Hospital (Outcome known) (n) | 383 | 309 |
Expected Mortality (mean%) | 34 | 34 |
Expected Deaths (n) | 130 | 105 |
Observed deaths (n) | 118 | 72 |
Observed mortality (mean%) | 31 | 23 |
OE ratio | 0,91 | 0,69 |
Unexpected survivors (n) | 12 | 33 |
6 month total (Outcome known) (n) | 229 | 286 |
Expected Unfavorable (mean%) | 60,3 | 54 |
Expected Unfavorable (n) | 138 | 154 |
Observed Unfavorable (n) | 154 | 105 |
Observed Unfavorable (mean%) | 67 | 37 |
OE ratio | 1,12 | 0,68 |
Unexpected favorable (n) | -16 | 49 |
Predictor | ICU Outcome (Alive = 1) | Hospital Outcome (Alive = 1) | Long Term Outcome (favorable = 1) | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR (CI 95 %) |
p-value | OR (CI 95 %) |
p-value | OR (CI 95 %) |
P-value | |
Study Phase | ||||||
Phase 1 | reference | - | reference | - | reference | - |
Phase 2 | 2.92 (1.35–6.31) | <0.01 | 3.01 (1.41–6.38) | <0.01 | 3.14 (1.72–5.73) | <0.001 |
Age | 0.93 (0.92–0.96) | <0.001 | 0.94 (0.92–0.96) | <0.001 | 0.95 (0.94–0.97) | <0.001 |
ISS | 0.93 (0.91–0.96) | <0.001 | 0.94 (0.92–0.96) | <0.001 | 0.96 (0.94–0.98) | <0.001 |
GCS | 1.24 (1.12–1.38) | <0.001 | 1.29 (1.16–1.43) | <0.001 | 1.2 (1.11–1.29) | <0.001 |
Pupils | ||||||
None reactive | Reference | - | Reference | - | Reference | - |
One reactive | 9.89 (2.12–45.9) | <0.01 | 7.57 (1.75–32.6) | <0.01 | 4.03 (1.09–14.85) | <0.01 |
Both reactive | 6.66 (2.58–17.1) | <0.001 | 6.09 (2.42–15.32) | <0.001 | 4.95 (1.97–12.45) | <0.001 |
Midline shift | ||||||
>5 mm | Reference | - | Reference | - | reference | - |
<5 mm | 0.55 (0.17–1.74) | 0.309 | 0.58 (0.18–1.81) | 0.348 | 2.07 (0.71–6) | 0.18 |
No shift | 1.92 (0.79–4.66) | 0.149 | 1.56 (0.66–3.71) | 0.314 | 5 (2.26–11) | <0.001 |
Ringers lactate administered | 1.56 (0.62–3.97) | 0.348 | 2.01 (0.83–4.89) | 0.124 | 1.44(0.69–3.01) | 0.319 |
Ringers solution administered | 1.25 (0.49–3.12) | 0.635 | 1.51 (0.63–3.6) | 0.358 | 0.93 (0.45–1.91) | 0.843 |
Colloids administered | 0.58 (0.13–2.41) | 0.447 | 0.6 (0.15–2.42) | 0.472 | 0.9 (0.26–3.14) | 0.869 |
EMS arrival to admission time <60 min | 1.49 (0.61–3.71) | 0.384 | 2.29 (0.95–5.49) | 0.063 | 0.87 (0.42–1.8) | 0.715 |
Admission to first CT time <60 min | 1.39 (0.59–3.3) | 0.441 | 1.14 (0.49–2.65) | 0.761 | 1.54 (0.79–3.04) | 0.203 |