Background
Methods
Experimental animals
Induction of diabetes
Collection of urine and blood
Biochemical assessment for kidney injury
Sample preparation for metabolomics analysis
Metabolomics quality control
HILIC UPLC-QTOF MS analysis
Metabolomics data analysis
Model | # of Compounds | Total # Samples | # of Components | R2X | R2Y | Q2 | # Samples in STZ | # Samples in NaC | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Positive | PCA All Samples | 2414 | 62 | 7 | 0.947 | 0.85 | |||
PCA 4 wks | 2414 | 28 | 7 | 0.96 | 0.841 | ||||
PCA WT STZ v WT NaC 4 wk | 2414 | 14 | 4 | 0.937 | 0.759 | ||||
OPLSDA WT STZ v WT NaC 4 wk | 2414 | 14 | 1 + 1 | 0.75 | 0.619 | 0.0699 | 9 | 5 | |
PCA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 4wk | 2414 | 14 | 4 | 0.93 | 0.756 | ||||
OPLSDA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 4wk | 2414 | 14 | 1 + 3 | 0.908 | 0.956 | 0.788 | 8 | 6 | |
PCA 8 wks | 2414 | 28 | 5 | 0.942 | 0.834 | ||||
PCA WT STZ v WT NaC 8 wk | 2414 | 13 | 5 | 0.967 | 0.829 | ||||
OPLSDA WT STZ v WT NaC 8 wk | 2414 | 13 | 1 + 2 | 0.845 | 0.912 | 0.764 | 8 | 5 | |
PCA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 8wk | 2414 | 14 | 4 | 0.962 | 0.912 | ||||
OPLSDA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 8wk | 2414 | 14 | 1 + 7 | 0.984 | 1 | 0.731 | 8 | 6 | |
Negative | PCA All Samples | 633 | 57 | 8 | 0.877 | 0.711 | |||
PCA 4 wks | 633 | 25 | 3 | 0.76 | 0.385 | ||||
PCA WT STZ v WT NaC 4 wk | 633 | 12 | 4 | 0.925 | 0.558 | ||||
OPLSDA WT STZ v WT NaC 4 wk | 633 | 12 | 1 + 2 | 0.873 | 0.962 | 0.876 | 7 | 5 | |
PCA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 4wk | 633 | 13 | 2 | 0.58 | 0.23 | ||||
OPLSDA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 4wk | 633 | 13 | 1 + 1 | 0.528 | 0.958 | 0.876 | 7 | 6 | |
PCA 8 wk | 633 | 26 | 3 | 0.759 | 0.478 | ||||
PCA WT STZ v WT NaC 8 wk | 633 | 12 | 3 | 0.866 | 0.497 | ||||
OPLSDA WT STZ v WT NaC 8 wk | 633 | 12 | 1 + 2 | 0.861 | 0.973 | 0.907 | 7 | 5 | |
PCA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 8wk | 633 | 14 | 3 | 0.759 | 0.174 | ||||
OPLSDA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 8wk | 633 | 14 | 1 + 1 | 0.498 | 0.871 | 0.686 | 8 | 6 |
Model | # of Compounds | Total # Samples | # of Components | R2X | R2Y | Q2 | # Samples in STZ | # Samples in NaC | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Positive | PCA All Samples | 3513 | 54 | 5 | 0.781 | 0.663 | |||
PCA 4 wks | 3513 | 24 | 2 | 0.711 | 0.627 | ||||
PCA WT STZ v WT NaC 4 wk | 3513 | 13 | 2 | 0.783 | 0.676 | ||||
OPLSDA WT STZ v WT NaC 4 wk | 3513 | 13 | 1 + 1 | 0.775 | 0.993 | 0.981 | 9 | 4 | |
PCA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 4wk | 3513 | 11 | 2 | 0.770 | 0.634 | ||||
OPLSDA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 4wk | 3513 | 11 | 1 + 0 | 0.598 | 0.596 | 0.444 | 8 | 3 | |
PCA 8 wks | 3513 | 24 | 4 | 0.803 | 0.641 | ||||
PCA WT STZ v WT NaC 8 wk | 3513 | 13 | 2 | 0.774 | 0.648 | ||||
OPLSDA WT STZ v WT NaC 8 wk | 3513 | 13 | 1 + 1 | 0.642 | 0.937 | 0.916 | 8 | 5 | |
PCA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 8wk | 3513 | 11 | 3 | 0.839 | 0.546 | ||||
OPLSDA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 8wk | 3513 | 11 | 1 + 4 | 0.893 | 0.999 | 0.841 | 6 | 5 | |
Negative | PCA All Samples | 4116 | 53 | 8 | 0.753 | 0.486 | |||
PCA 4 wks | 4116 | 24 | 4 | 0.692 | 0.477 | ||||
PCA WT STZ v WT NaC 4 wk | 4116 | 13 | 2 | 0.632 | 0.453 | ||||
OPLSDA WT STZ v WT NaC 4 wk | 4116 | 13 | 1 + 3 | 0.73 | 1 | 0.983 | 9 | 4 | |
PCA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 4wk | 4116 | 11 | 2 | 0.566 | 0.254 | ||||
OPLSDA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 4wk | 4116 | 11 | 1 + 0 | 0.333 | 0.644 | 0.451 | 8 | 3 | |
PCA 8 wk | 4116 | 24 | 4 | 0.646 | 0.327 | ||||
PCA WT STZ v WT NaC 8 wk | 4116 | 13 | 4 | 0.767 | 0.311 | ||||
OPLSDA WT STZ v WT NaC 8 wk | 4116 | 13 | 1 + 0 | 0.409 | 0.953 | 0.921 | 8 | 5 | |
PCA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 8wk | 4116 | 11 | 2 | 0.574 | 0.174 | ||||
OPLSDA βKO STZ v βKO NaC 8wk | 4116 | 11 | 1 + 6 | 0.894 | 1 | 0.816 | 6 | 5 |
4 Weeks post STZ | 8 weeks post-STZ | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Positive Mode | Negative Mode | Total | Positive Mode | Negative Mode | Total | ||||||
Unknown | annotated | Unknown | annotated | Unknown | annotated | Unknown | annotated | ||||
Plasma | βKO Only | 118 | 4 | 71 | 5 | 198 | 69 | 0 | 77 | 1 | 147 |
WT only | 47 | 2 | 105 | 5 | 159 | 236 | 9 | 122 | 7 | 374 | |
Both WT and βKO | 52 | 4 | 108 | 7 | 171 | 85 | 5 | 113 | 7 | 210 | |
Urine | βKO Only | 7 | 1 | 14 | 2 | 24 | 120 | 9 | 244 | 14 | 387 |
WT only | 2475 | 30 | 2330 | 39 | 4874 | 1761 | 22 | 1636 | 18 | 3437 | |
Both WT and βKO | 95 | 13 | 98 | 20 | 226 | 641 | 21 | 674 | 32 | 1368 |
4 Weeks post STZ | 8 weeks Post STX | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Metabolite | VIP | P-value* | FC** | Metabolite | VIP | P-value* | FC** | |
WT Only | 3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethyleneglycol sulfate | 0.7 | 0.003 | 6.6 | 3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethyleneglycol sulfate | 0.5 | 0.01 | 9.1 |
N-Heptanoylglycine | 0.6 | 0.005 | -5.2 | 3-Aminosalicylic acid | 0.9 | 0.045 | 3.6 | |
3-Methoxytyrosine | 0.5 | 0.018 | −3.8 | LysoPC(16:1(9Z)) | 3 | 0.019 | −3.6 | |
7-Methoxy-5-prenyloxycoumarin | 0.6 | 0.042 | 2 | 5-Acetyl-2,4-dimethyloxazole | 0.4 | 0.003 | 3.1 | |
Guanine | 0.3 | 0.019 | 2.7 | |||||
Taurocholic acid | 3.2 | 0.019 | 2.5 | |||||
9′-Carboxy-gamma-chromanol | 0.5 | 0.019 | 2.5 | |||||
Riboflavin | 0.4 | 0.019 | 2.5 | |||||
N-Acetylleucine | 1 | 0.005 | 2.2 | |||||
Indoxyl sulfate | 5.3 | 0.003 | 2.1 | |||||
2-Phenylglycine | 0.3 | 0.003 | 2.1 | |||||
N-Heptanoylglycine | 0.2 | 0.03 | −2.1 | |||||
7-Methoxy-5-prenyloxycoumarin | 0.4 | 0.019 | 2 | |||||
βKO Only | Porric acid B | 0.5 | 0.021 | 3.7 | Isovalerylalanine | 0.7 | 0.016 | −2.5 |
3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethyleneglycol sulfate | 1.7 | 0.047 | 3.3 | |||||
L-Acetylcarnitine | 1 | 0.021 | 3.1 | |||||
D-1,5-Anhydrofructose | 0.8 | 0.01 | −3.1 | |||||
Hexanoylcarnitine | 0.5 | 0.042 | −2.2 | |||||
N-Acetylleucine | 1 | 0.021 | 2 | |||||
Tyrosyl-Valine | 0.3 | 0.016 | 2 |
4 Weeks post STZ | 8 weeks post-STZ | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
WT | βKO | WT | βKO | ||||||||||
VIP | P-value* | FC** | VIP | P-value* | FC** | VIP | P-value* | FC** | VIP | P-value* | FC** | ||
Cortisol | 1.7 | 0.003 | 23.2 | 0.9 | 0.013 | 2.4 | Indole-3-carboxilic acid-O-sulphate | 0.5 | 0.003 | 6.2 | 0.1 | 0.01 | 935.1 |
Indole-3-carboxilic acid-O-sulphate | 0.7 | 0.005 | 4.7 | 0.2 | 0.013 | 10.3 | Equol 7-O-glucuronide | 0.3 | 0.002 | 4.5 | 0.4 | 0.02 | 3.2 |
LysoPC(16:1(9Z)) | 5.1 | 0.002 | −4 | 4.8 | 0.026 | −2.3 | Cortisol | 0.9 | 0.003 | 4.2 | 0.8 | 0.026 | 4.4 |
Fenoprofen glucuronide | 0.7 | 0.005 | 3.4 | 1.4 | 0.013 | 3.9 | |||||||
L-Carnitine | 0.9 | 0.019 | −3.3 | 1.2 | 0.01 | −3.2 | Fenoprofen glucuronide | 0.7 | 0.003 | 3.6 | 0.8 | 0.01 | 3.1 |
APGPR Enterostatin | 1.1 | 0.005 | −3 | 1.5 | 0.013 | −4 | Tyrosyl-Valine | 0.3 | 0.019 | 3.4 | 0.3 | 0.033 | 1.9 |
Hippuric acid | 0.9 | 0.048 | 2.4 | 1.6 | 0.013 | 2.7 | 3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethyleneglycol sulfate | 0.7 | 0.03 | 3.2 | 0.9 | 0.042 | 2.7 |
3,4-Dihydroxyphenylglycol O-sulfate | 0.5 | 0.005 | 2.4 | 0.4 | 0.036 | 1.2 | Hippuric acid | 1.2 | 0.003 | 3.2 | 1.2 | 0.012 | 2.5 |
Isovalerylalanine | 0.5 | 0.005 | −2.3 | 0.8 | 0.013 | −2.2 |
Results
Meprin β expression is associated with higher levels of kidney injury
Meprin expression alters plasma and urinary metabolite profiles in mice with STZ-induced type 1 diabetes
4 Weeks post STZ | 8 Weeks post STZ | |||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
VIP | P-value* | FC** | VIP | P-value* | FC** | |||
WT Only | Cortisol | 10.5 | 0.003 | 54.9 | Cortisol | 8.2 | 0.002 | 21.6 |
9,13-Dihydroxy-4-megastigmen-3-one 9-glucoside | 1.6 | 0.003 | −22.9 | Homovanillic acid sulfate | 7.8 | 0.002 | 21 | |
Aromadendrin 3,7-diglucoside | 1.3 | 0.02 | 6.9 | Aromadendrin 3,7-diglucoside | 2 | 0.002 | 13.9 | |
Hydroxybutyrylcarnitine | 1 | 0.003 | −6.2 | Pyrogallol-2-O-glucuronide | 1.5 | 0.006 | −3.5 | |
Homovanillic acid sulfate | 8.3 | 0.02 | 4.1 | Phloretin 2′-O-glucuronide | 1.3 | 0.002 | 3.4 | |
Taurocholic acid | 0.5 | 0.003 | 4 | Prenyl glucoside | 2 | 0.002 | −3.1 | |
N-Heptanoylglycine | 4.7 | 0.011 | −3.9 | Caffeic acid 3-sulfate | 4.7 | 0.002 | 2.3 | |
Cicerin 7-(6-malonylglucoside) | 3.5 | 0.003 | 3.7 | 4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvic acid | 1.7 | 0.003 | 2.3 | |
Porric acid B | 3.3 | 0.003 | −3.7 | Tyrosyl-Valine | 1.4 | 0.006 | 2.3 | |
Phloretin 2′-O-glucuronide | 1.2 | 0.003 | 3.6 | Dibutyl malate | 1.7 | 0.002 | 2.1 | |
Phenylacetylglycine | 0.4 | 0.003 | −3.4 | Ergothioneine | 0.3 | 0.002 | 2.1 | |
20-oxo-leukotriene B4 | 2.1 | 0.003 | 3.3 | Taurocholic acid | 0.3 | 0.002 | 2 | |
Tyrosyl-Valine | 1.8 | 0.003 | 3.3 | Indole-3-carboxilic acid-O-sulphate | 4.9 | 0.002 | 1.9 | |
LysoPC(16:1(9Z)) | 0.5 | 0.003 | 2.9 | 7-Methoxy-5-prenyloxycoumarin | 2.4 | 0.002 | 1.9 | |
3b,8b-Dihydroxy-6b-angeloyloxy-7(11)-eremophilen-12,8-olide | 1.8 | 0.003 | 2.7 | 5-Acetyl-2,4-dimethyloxazole | 2.2 | 0.002 | 1.7 | |
Indole-3-carboxilic acid-O-sulphate | 1.7 | 0.003 | 2.7 | 3,5-Dihydroxy-3′,4′-dimethoxy-6,7-methylenedioxyflavone 3-glucuronide | 5.6 | 0.004 | −3.7 | |
Caffeic acid 4-sulfate | 2.5 | 0.003 | −2.7 | 3-Formyl-6-hydroxyindole | 1.2 | 0.017 | 3.6 | |
Phenylpropionylglycine | 4.8 | 0.011 | −2.4 | Formononetin 7-O-glucuronide | 2.3 | 0.004 | 1.7 | |
Ergothioneine | 0.3 | 0.003 | 2.1 | Indoxyl glucuronide* | 3.2 | 0.004 | −1.7 | |
Hippuric acid | 1.4 | 0.034 | −2 | |||||
βKO Only | 4-Methoxyphenylacetic acid | 2.3 | 1.4 | |||||
3-Methoxy-4-hydroxyphenylethyleneglycol sulfate | 14.2 | 1.3 | ||||||
Riboflavin | 2.5 | −1.3 |
4 Weeks post STZ | 8 weeks post-STZ | ||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
WT | βKO | WT | βKO | ||||||||||
VIP | P-value* | FC** | VIP | P-value* | FC** | VIP | P-value* | FC** | VIP | P-value* | FC** | ||
a-L-threo-4-Hex-4-enopyranuronosyl-D-galacturonic acid | 2.8 | 0.003 | − 172.7 | 3.9 | −20.8 | a-L-threo-4-Hex-4-enopyranuronosyl-D-galacturonic acid | 2.4 | 0.003 | −22.5 | 3.3 | 0.052 | −4.3 | |
S-(Formylmethyl)glutathione | 1.4 | 0.003 | −31 | 2.7 | −5.6 | 9,13-Dihydroxy-4-megastigmen-3-one 9-glucoside | 1.7 | 0.002 | −19.1 | 1.5 | 0.004 | −3.5 | |
1-Pyrroline-4-hydroxy-2-carboxylate | 2.5 | 0.003 | −13.2 | 2.6 | −3.6 | S-(Formylmethyl)glutathione | 1.2 | 0.002 | −8.4 | 2.6 | 0.126 | −2.3 | |
Avenic acid B | 1.4 | 0.003 | −7.3 | 2.5 | −4.8 | 1-Pyrroline-4-hydroxy-2-carboxylate | 2.6 | 0.002 | −7.7 | 2.1 | 0.017 | −2.8 | |
Glycerophosphocholine | 3.9 | 0.003 | −6.9 | 2.6 | −3 | Hydroxybutyrylcarnitine | 1.1 | 0.002 | −6.5 | 1.7 | 0.004 | −5.4 | |
Nicotinic acid | 3.3 | 0.003 | −5.9 | 3.8 | −3.1 | Cicerin 7-(6-malonylglucoside) | 4 | 0.006 | 5.8 | 1.4 | 0.004 | 1.8 | |
Indole-3-carboxylic acid | 2.4 | 0.003 | −4.8 | 2.3 | −2.2 | Avenic acid B | 1.5 | 0.002 | −5.8 | 1.5 | 0.009 | −1.7 | |
Pyrogallol-2-O-glucuronide | 1.7 | 0.003 | −4.8 | 2.2 | −2.6 | Glycerophosphocholine | 4 | 0.002 | −4.8 | 4.1 | 0.017 | −2.2 | |
N-a-Acetyl-L-arginine | 2.9 | 0.003 | −3.3 | 2.4 | −1.6 | Indole-3-carboxylic acid | 2.7 | 0.002 | −4.8 | 2.5 | 0.004 | −3 | |
N-Carboxyethyl-g-aminobutyric acid | 1.5 | 0.003 | −3.3 | 2.2 | −2.8 | N-Carboxyethyl-g-aminobutyric acid | 2 | 0.002 | −4.8 | 1.8 | 0.03 | −1.8 | |
Galactonic acid | 4.3 | 0.003 | −3.1 | 5.2 | −2.5 | Nicotinic acid | 3.3 | 0.002 | −3.6 | 3.9 | 0.004 | −2.4 | |
4-Hydroxyphenylpyruvic acid | 2.5 | 0.003 | 2.6 | 2.2 | 4.8 | Porric acid B | 3.5 | 0.002 | −3.4 | 3.3 | 0.052 | −1.6 | |
Symmetric dimethylarginine | 3.5 | 0.003 | −2.6 | 4.3 | −2.3 | 1,3,5-Trimethoxybenzene | 2.1 | 0.002 | −3.1 | 1.5 | 0.009 | −1.6 | |
7-Methoxy-5-prenyloxycoumarin | 2.6 | 0.003 | 2.5 | 2.3 | 1.6 | Phenylacetylglycine | 0.4 | 0.002 | −3 | 0.4 | 0.004 | −2.6 | |
Indoxylglucuronide | 1.8 | 0.034 | −2.5 | 3.5 | −2 | N-Acetylleucine | 6.4 | 0.006 | 2.7 | 5.2 | 0.329 | 1.3 | |
Caffeic acid 3-sulfate | 6.6 | 0.003 | 2.4 | 5.8 | 4.2 | 20-oxo-leukotriene B4 | 1.7 | 0.003 | 2.6 | 1.8 | 0.009 | 2.3 | |
Genistein 5-O-glucuronide | 3.2 | 0.003 | 2.3 | 2.9 | 1.2 | N-Heptanoylglycine | 4.4 | 0.006 | −2.6 | 6.7 | 0.017 | −3.9 | |
N-Acetylleucine | 7.5 | 0.02 | 2.2 | 7 | 2 | Indole-3-carboxilic acid-O-sulphate | 1.8 | 0.002 | 2.4 | 0.6 | 0.004 | 3.3 | |
Betaine | 4.1 | 0.006 | 2 | 3.2 | 1.5 | L-Carnitine | 4.6 | 0.002 | −2.4 | 6.2 | 0.03 | −1.7 | |
Indole-3-carboxilic acid-O-sulphate | 3.9 | 0.02 | 1.6 | 2.4 | 1.8 | D-1,5-Anhydrofructose | 0.5 | 0.003 | −2.2 | 1.1 | 0.004 | −2.3 | |
5-Acetyl-2,4-dimethyloxazole | 2.3 | 0.003 | 1.7 | 2.6 | 1.7 | Galactonic acid | 3.8 | 0.003 | −2.1 | 4.2 | 0.177 | −2.1 | |
Lotaustralin | 2.5 | 0.003 | 1.8 | 2.4 | 1.6 | Genistein 5-O-glucuronide | 2.6 | 0.03 | 1.8 | 3.3 | 0.004 | 1.6 | |
Fenoprofen glucuronide | 6.7 | 0.003 | 1.6 | 10 | 1.5 | Equol 7-O-glucuronide | 3.5 | 0.003 | 1.7 | 4.6 | 0.004 | 1.5 | |
Equol 7-O-glucuronide | 3.2 | 0.003 | 1.6 | 4.1 | 1.5 | Isovalerylalanine | 4.7 | 0.03 | −1.5 | 7.6 | 0.052 | −3.7 | |
Indolelactic acid | 4.6 | 0.065 | −1.5 | 5.8 | 0.082 | −1.5 |
Meprin expression-associated differentiating metabolites in plasma
Differentiating plasma metabolites independent of meprin expression
Meprin expression-associated differentiating metabolites in urine
Differentiating urine metabolites independent of meprin expression
Meprin expression-associated metabolites that changed in both plasma and urine
Metabolic pathways impacted by meprin expression
Metabolite | Increase/decrease | Pathways |
---|---|---|
Group 1: changed levels in plasma associate with meprin expression or deficiency | ||
Taurocholic acid | Increases in WT | Bile acids/lipid metabolism |
LysoPC(16:1(9Z)) | Decreases in WT | Lipid metabolism |
Indoxyl sulfate | Increases in WT | oxidative stress |
Group 2: 8 changes in urine associate with meprin β expression or deficiency | ||
Taurocholic acida | Increase in WT | Bile acids (lipid metabolism) |
Ergothioneinea | Increase in WT | Gut/dietary source (histidine metabolism) |
Tyrosyl-Valinea | Increase in WT | Protein degradation (aromatic amino acid metabolism) |
Prenyl glucoside | Decrease in WT | Gut/dietary (fatty acyl glucoside) |
Homovanillic acid sulfate | increase in WT | Catecholamine metabolism |
Cortisol | Increase in WT | Steroid hormone synthesis/stress response |
Aromadendrin 3,7-diglucoside | Increase in WT | Gut/dietary (flavonoid) |
Phloretin 2′-O-glucuronidea | Increase in WT | Gut/dietary (flavonoid) |
3,5-Dihydroxy-3′,4′-dimethoxy-6,7- methylenedioxyflavone 3-glucuronide | Decrease in βKO | Gut/dietary |
Pantothenic acid | Decrease in βKO | Gut/dietary |
Indoxyl glucuronide | Decrease in βKO | Indole metabolism/gut microbiota |
Group 3: changed levels in plasma associate with STZ-induced type 1 diabetes but independent of meprin β expression | ||
Hippuric acida | Increase at 4 and 8 weeks | Amino acid metabolism (phenylalanine polyphenol metabolism; uremia) |
Indole-3-carboxilic acid-O-sulphatea | Increase | Indole metabolism |
Fenoprofen glucuronidea | Increase | NSAID metabolite |
Group 4: Changed levels in urine associate with STZ-induced type 1 diabetes but independent of meprin β expression | ||
Glycerophosphocholine | Decrease | Lipid metabolism (choline metabolism; glycerophosphocholine) |
Nicotinic acid | Decrease | Co-factor and vitamin (nicotinate and nicotinamide metabolism) |
1-Pyrroline-4-hydroxy-2-carboxylate | Decrease | Amino acid metabolism (arginine and proline metabolism) |
Indole-3-carboxylic acid | Decrease | Gut/Dietary (indole metabolism) |
a-L-threo-4-Hex-4-enopyranuronosyl-D-galacturonic acid | Decrease | Carbohydrate metabolism (glucuronic acid derivative) |
Discussion
Conclusions
Acknowledgements
Funding
-
Paid for maintenance of mice and supplies for induction of diabetes and biochemical assays for kidney function
-
Supported Dr. Ongeri’s effort
-
Covered the costs of metabolomics analysis – including extended data analysis
-
Supported Dr. Gooding’s effort