Background
Methods
Subjects and materials
Measurements and technique
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Head: tr-n and tr-g (forehead height)
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Orbits: en-en (intercanthal distance), ex-ex (biocular width), en-ex (eye fissure length)
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Face: ft-ft (bitemporal width), zy-zy (bizygomatic face width), go-go (bigonial width), tr-me (physiognomical face height), n-me (morphological face height), g-sn (midface height), sn-me (lower face height
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Nose: al-al (Morphological nose width), ac-ac (nasal alar base width), n-sn (nose height)
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Labio-oral region: ch-ch (mouth width), sn-ls (philtrum height), sn-sto (upper lip height), ls-sto (upper vermilion height), sto-li (lower vermilion height), sto-lmf (lower lip height), lmf-me (chin height)
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Angular measurements: nasofrontal, nasolabial, labiomental, and submental-cervical.
Measurement error and reliability
Statistical analysis
Results
Examiner reliability
Vertical measurements | Dahlberg coefficient | |
Trichion to Glabella | 0.041 | |
Trichion to Nasion | 0.083 | |
Glabella to Subnasale | 0.050 | |
Nasion to Subnasale | 0.045 | |
Subnasale to Soft tissue menton | 0.018 | |
Upper lip height | 0.046 | |
Lower lip height | 0.086 | |
Philtrum height | 0.050 | |
Lateral commissure height | 0.043 | |
Vermillion height Upper | 0.039 | |
Vermillion height Lower | 0.033 | |
Chin height | 0.058 | |
Lower lip to labiomental fold (LMF) | 0.339 | |
LMF (depth) | 0.043 | |
Lower lip to Soft tissue menton | 0.076 | |
Horizontal measurements | Dahlberg coefficient | Mean (abs diff/mean) (%) |
Ex-Ex | 0.036 | 0.053 |
Medial canthus to lateral canthus (ex-en) | 0.024 | 0.101 |
En-En | 0.022 | 0.050 |
Right ala to left ala (al-al) | 0.029 | 0.063 |
Right ala curvature to left ala curvature (ac-ac) | 0.235 | 0.993 |
Mouth width (ch-ch) | 0.054 | 0.105 |
Bitemporal width (ft-ft) | 0.027 | 0.042 |
Bizygomatic width (zy-zy) | 0.575 | 0.395 |
Bigonial width (go-go) | 0.024 | 0.027 |
Principal measurements
Kenyan male face | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
KM Mean (n = 36) | NAW (SD) (n-109) | P value | AA (SD) (n = 50) | P value | |
Vertical measurements | |||||
Forehead height II tr-n | 72.2 (2.3) | 67.1 (7.5) | < 0.001* | 72.0 (7.7) | 0.850 |
Nasal height n-sn | 51.0 (1.9) | 54.8 (3.3) | < 0.001* | 51.9 (3.0) | 0.077 |
Lower face height sn-me | 76.4 (3.6) | 72.6 (4.5) | < 0.001* | 78.9 (6.7) | 0.025 |
Upper lip height sn-sto | 25.5 (1.3) | 22.3 (2.1) | < 0.001* | 26.1 (2.5) | 0.107 |
Lower lip height sto-sl | 22.5 (1.9) | 19.7 (2.1) | < 0.001* | 22.5 (1.9) | 0.402 |
Horizontal measurements | |||||
Intercanthal distance en-en | 32.2 (1.9) | 33.3 (2.7) | 0.011 | 35.8 (2.8) | < 0.001* |
Eye width ex-en | 34.0 (3.4) | 31.3 (1.3) | < 0.001* | 32.9 (1.7) | 0.094 |
Biocular width ex-ex | 98.2 (3.5) | 91.2 (3.0) | < 0.001* | 96.8 (4.5) | 0.110 |
Nasal width al-al | 43.2 (3.8) | 34.9 (2.1) | < 0.001* | 44.1 (3.4) | 0.234 |
Mouth width ch-ch | 55.9 (3.3) | 54.5 (3.0) | 0.027 | 54.6 (4.1) | 0.106 |
Kenyan female face | |||||
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KF mean (n = 36) | NAW (SD) (n-200) | P value | AA (SD) (n = 50) | P value | |
Vertical measurements | |||||
Forehead height II tr-n | 67.5 (2.9) | 63.0 (6.0) | < 0.001* | 67.1 (5.9) | 0.693 |
Nasal height n-sn | 47.6 (3.1) | 50.6 (3.1) | < 0.001* | 48.8 (3.7) | 0.114 |
Lower face height sn-me | 69.5 (4.8) | 64.3 (4.0) | < 0.001* | 71.5 (5.2) | 0.061 |
Upper lip height sn-sto | 24.0 (2.5) | 20.1 (2.0) | < 0.001* | 24.5 (3.0) | 0.435 |
Lower lip height sto-sl | 20.7 (1.1) | 17.8 (4.7) | < 0.001* | 20.2 (2.4) | 0.163 |
Horizontal measurements | |||||
Intercanthal distance en-en | 32.1 (1.4) | 31.8 (2.3) | 0.225 | 34.4 (0.5) | < 0.001* |
Eye width ex-en | 33.7 (1.5) | 30.7 (1.2) | < 0.001* | 32.2 (2.0) | 0.087 |
Biocular width ex-ex | 94.4 (4.9) | 87.8 (3.2) | < 0.001* | 92.9 (5.3) | 0.185 |
Nasal width al-al | 40.7 (3.7) | 31.4 (2.0) | < 0.001* | 40.1 (3.2) | 0.411 |
Mouth width ch-ch | 52.0 (4.0) | 50.2 (3.5) | 0.012 | 53.6 (4.0) | 0.073 |
Kenyan male (n = 34) | Mean | SD | NAW mean (n = 50) | SD | P value | AA mean (n = 50) | SD | P value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasofrontal | 127.3 | 9.0 | 130.3 | 7.4 | 0.107 | 126.5 | 12.0 | 0.741 |
Nasolabial | 85.5 | 10.1 | 99.8 | 11.8 | 0.001 | 71.4 | 14.5 | 0.001 |
Labiomental | 128.2 | 10.8 | 113.5 | 20.7 | 0.001 | 101.5 | 17.7 | 0.001 |
Submental-cervical | 109.1 | 14.5 |
Kenyan female(n = 36) | Mean | SD | NAW mean (n = 50) | SD | P value | AA mean (n = 50) | SD | P value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nasofrontal | 127.9 | 3.0 | 134.3 | 7.0 | 0.001 | 127.6 | 8.1 | 0.786 |
Nasolabial | 85.2 | 13.8 | 104.2 | 9.8 | 0.001 | 73.9 | 14.5 | 0.001 |
Labiomental | 116.9 | 21.1 | 121.4 | 14.4 | 0.269 | 101.6 | 18.0 | 0.001 |
Submental-cervical | 109.1 | 14.5 |
Specific Kenyan-African craniofacial data
Comparative craniofacial data
Comparative data with NAW and AA
KM mean (SD) (n = 36) | NAW mean (SD) difference (n = 109) | P value | AA mean (SD) difference (n = 50) | P value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Kenyan male face | |||||
Vertical measurements | |||||
Forehead height I (tr-g) | 61.4 (3.2) | 4.4 (3.2) | < 0.001 | − 0.4 (3.2) | 0.496 |
Forehead height II (tr-n) | 72.2 (2.3) | 5.1 (2.3) | < 0.001 | 0.2 (2.3) | 0.576 |
Midface height (g-sn) | 64.8 (6.5) | − 2.4 (6.5) | 0.033 | − 4.0 (6.5) | 0.001 |
Nasal height (n-sn) | 51.0 (1.9) | − 3.8 (1.9) | < 0.001 | − 0.9 (1.9) | 0.005 |
Lower face height (sn-me) | 76.4 (3.6) | 3.8 (3.6) | < 0.001 | − 2.6 (3.6) | < 0.001 |
Upper lip height (sn-sto) | 25.5 (1.3) | 3.1 (1.3) | < 0.001 | − 0.7 (1.3) | 0.004 |
Lower lip height (sto-sl) | 22.5 (1.9) | 2.8 (1.9) | < 0.001 | 0.4 (1.9) | 0.230 |
Philtrum height (sn-ls) | 15.5 (1.3) | − 0.4 (1.3) | 0.072 | − 0.9 (1.3) | < 0.001 |
Lateral commissure height | 23.5 (2.6) | ||||
Upper vermillion height (Is-sto) | 13.7 (1.3) | 5.9 (1.3) | < 0.001 | 0.1 (1.3) | 0.726 |
Lower vermillion height (sto-li) | 13.8 (0.9) | 4.5 (0.9) | < 0.001 | 0.0 (0.9) | 0.903 |
Chin height (fml-me) | 36.5 (3.1) | 3.4 (3.1) | < 0.001 | 0.5 (3.1) | 0.307 |
Lower lip to labiomental fold | 12.1 (1.9) | 0.2 (1.9) | 0.473 | 0.3 (1.9) | 0.021 |
Labiomental fold | 8.2 (1.9) | ||||
Lower lip to menton | 56.2 (3.5) | 8.2 (3.4) | < 0.001 | − 1.3 (3.5) | 0.037 |
Nasion to menton | 101.8 (3.6) | ||||
Horizontal measurements | |||||
Intercanthal distance (en-en) | 32.2 (1.9) | − 1.1 (1.9) | 0.002 | −3.6 (1.9) | < 0.001 |
Eye width (ex-en) | 34.0 (3.4) | 2.7 (3.4) | < 0.001 | 1.1 (3.4) | 0.071 |
Biocular width (ex-ex) | 98.2 (3.5) | 7.0 (3.5) | < 0.001 | 1.4 (3.5) | 0.021 |
Nasal width (al-al) | 43.2 (3.8) | 8.3 (3.8) | < 0.001 | − 1.0 (3.8) | 0.139 |
Ala curvature (ac-ac) | 41.3 (3.1) | 8.5 (3.1) | < 0.001 | 1.3 (3.1) | 0.019 |
Mouth width (ch-ch) | 55.9 (3.3) | 1.4 (3.3) | 0.014 | 1.3 (3.3) | 0.022 |
Bitemporal width (ft-ft) | 115.3 (3.4) | − 0.6 (3.4) | 0.273 | − 1.0 (3.4) | 0.077 |
Bizygomatic width (zy-zy) | 133.8 (4,6)) | − 5.3 (4.6) | < 0.001 | − 4.9 (4.6) | < 0.001 |
Bigonial width (go-go) | 106.6 (5.9) | 1.0 (5.9) | 0.312 | 2.4 (5.9) | 0.019 |
Kenyan female face | |||||
Vertical measurements | |||||
Forehead height I (tr-g) | 55.4 (3.3) | 2.7 (3.3) | < 0.001 | − 0.3 (3.3) | 0.545 |
Forehead height II (tr-n) | 67.5 (2.9) | 4.5 (2.9) | < 0.001 | 0.4 (2.9) | 0.423 |
Midface height (g-sn) | 65.3 (5.7) | 2.2 (5.7) | 0.027 | 0.7 (5.7) | 0.481 |
Nasal height (n-sn) | 47.6 (3.1) | − 3.0 (3.1) | < 0.001 | − 1.2 (3.1) | 0.029 |
Lower face height (sn-me) | 65.0 (4.8) | 5.2 (4.8) | < 0.001 | − 2.0 (4.8) | 0.013 |
Upper lip height (sn-sto) | 24.0 (2.5) | 3.9 (2.5) | < 0.001 | − 0.5 (2.5) | 0.267 |
Lower lip height (sto-sl) | 20.7 (1.1) | 2.9 (1.1) | < 0.001 | 0.5 (1.1) | 0.004 |
Philtrum height | 13.5 (1.6) | − 0.3 (1.6) | 0.229 | − 0.5 (1.6) | 0.052 |
Lateral commissure height | 22.3 (2.3) | ||||
Upper vermillion height (Is-sto) | 13.4 (0.9) | 4.7 (0.9) | < 0.001 | 0.1 (0.9) | 0.332 |
Lower vermillion height (sto-li) | 13.6 (1.0) | 4.2 (1.0) | < 0.001 | 0.4 (1.0) | 0.031 |
Chin height (sl-gn) | 34.1 (3.2) | 7.1 (3.2) | < 0.001 | − 1.1 (3.2) | 0.046 |
Lower lip to labiomental fold | 10.6 (1.1) | −0.2 (1.1) | 0.401 | − 0.2 (1.1) | 0.401 |
Labiomental fold | 7.9 (2.8) | ||||
Lower lip to menton | 51.6 (3.4) | 8.2 (3.4) | < 0.001 | − 0.5 (3.4) | 0.399 |
Nasion to menton | 117.1 (5.4) | ||||
Horizontal measurements | |||||
Intercanthal distance (en-en) | 32.1 (1.4) | 0.3 (1.4) | 0.136 | − 2.3 (1.4) | < .001 |
Eye width (ex-en) | 33.7 (1.5) | 3.0 (1.5) | < 0.001 | 1.5 (1.5) | < 0.001 |
Biocular width (ex-ex) | 94.4 (4.9) | 6.6 (4.9) | < 0.001 | 1.5 (4.9) | 0.077 |
Nasal width (al-al) | 40.7 (3.7) | 9.3 (3.7) | < 0.001 | 0.6 (3.7) | 0.313 |
Ala curvature (R – L) | 33.5 (2.2) | 3.0 (2.2) | < 0.001 | 1.3 (2.2) | 0.019 |
Mouth width (ch-ch) | 52.0 (4.0) | 1.8 (4.0) | 0.008 | − 1.6 (4.0) | 0.022 |
Bitemporal width (ft-ft) | 111.2 (2.5) | − 0.3 (2.5) | 0.430 | − 0.2 (2.5) | 0.582 |
Bizygomatic width (zy-zy) | 130.1 (3.5) | 0.1 (3.5) | 0.827 | − 0.4 (3.5) | 0.523 |
Bigonial width (go-go) | 96.8 (2.9) | 2.3 (2.9) | 0.001 | 0.1 (2.9) | 0.880 |
Comparative data with neoclassical proportional canons
Canon II | KM % | KF% |
---|---|---|
tr-n = n-sn > 1 | 100 | 100 |
tr-n = n-sn < −1 | 0 | 0 |
tr-n = n-sn > = − 1 < =1 | 0 | 0 |
Canon II | ||
tr-n = sn-me> 1 | 8 | 30 |
tr-n = sn-me<−1 | 86 | 59 |
tr-n = sn-me> = −1 < =1 | 6 | 11 |
Canon III | ||
tr-g = g-sn > 1 | 31 | 3 |
tr-g = g-sn < −1 | 64 | 95 |
tr-g = g-sn > = − 1 < =1 | 6 | 3 |
Canon V | ||
en-en = al-al > 1 | 0 | 0 |
en-en = al-al < −1 | 100 | 100 |
en-en = al-al > = − 1 < =1 | 0 | 0 |
Canon VI | ||
en-en = ex-en > 1 | 17 | 8 |
en-en = ex-en < −1 | 50 | 65 |
en-en = ex-en > = − 1 < =1 | 33 | 27 |
Canon VII | ||
ch-ch = 1.5(al-al) > 1 | 6 | 3 |
ch-ch = 1.5(al-al) < −1 | 89 | 86 |
ch-ch = 1.5(al-al) > = − 1 < =1 | 6 | 11 |
Canon VIII | ||
al-al = 0.25(zy-zy) > 1 | 100 | 100 |
al-al = 0.25(zy-zy) < −1 | 0 | 0 |
al-al = 0.25(zy-zy) > = − 1 < =1 | 0 | 0 |
KAM | Diff NAW | KAF | Diff NAW | P value | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Vermillion total upper lip height | 55.9 (5.5) | 12.8 (5.5) | 56.3 (5.7) | 27.5 (39.6) | < 0.001 |
Vermillion cutaneous upper lip height | 99.4 (11.1) | 11.6 (11.1) | 99.2 (4.8) | 11.8 (4.8) | < 0.001 |
Nose— mouth width | 77.3 (7.0) | 12.0 (7.0) | 78.7 (9.1) | 15.4 (9.1) | < 0.001 |
Intercanthal nasal width | 75.2 (7.0) | −19.9 (7.7) | 79.5 (7.4) | −21.4 (7.4) | < 0.001 |
Lower face height | 50.1 (2.4) | 6.4 (2.4) | 40.7 (2.4) | −3.1 (2.4) | < 0.001 |
Male | Female | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Mean | Standard deviation ± | Mean | Standard deviation ± | |
Vertical measurements | ||||
Forehead height I (tr-g) | 61.4 | 3.2 | 55.4 | 3.3 |
Forehead height II (tr-n) | 72.2 | 2.3 | 67.5 | 2.9 |
Midface height (g-sn) | 64.8 | 6.5 | 65.3 | 5.7 |
Nasal height (n-sn) | 51.0 | 1.9 | 47.6 | 3.1 |
Lower face height (sn-me) | 76.4 | 3.6 | 69.5 | 4.8 |
Upper lip height (sn-sto) | 25.5 | 1.3 | 24.0 | 2.5 |
Lower lip height (sto-sl) | 22.5 | 1.9 | 20.7 | 1.1 |
Philtrum height (sn-ls) | 15.5 | 1.3 | 13.5 | 1.6 |
Lateral commissure height | 23.5 | 2.6 | 22.3 | 2.3 |
Upper vermillion height (Is-sto) | 13.7 | 1.3 | 13.4 | 0.9 |
Lower vermillion height (sto-li) | 13.8 | 0.9 | 13.6 | 1.0 |
Chin height (fml-me) | 36.5 | 3.1 | 34.1 | 3.2 |
Lower lip to labiomental fold | 12.1 | 1.9 | 10.6 | 1.1 |
Labiomental fold | 8.2 | 1.9 | 7.9 | 2.8 |
Lower lip to menton | 56.2 | 3.5 | 51.6 | 3.4 |
Nasion to menton | 101.8 | 3.6 | 117.1 | 5.4 |
Horizontal measurements | ||||
Intercanthal distance (en-en) | 32.2 | 1.9 | 32.1 | 1.4 |
Eye width (ex-en) | 34.0 | 3.4 | 33.7 | 1.5 |
Biocular width (ex-ex) | 98.2 | 3.5 | 94.4 | 4.9 |
Nasal width (al-al) | 43.2 | 3.8 | 40.7 | 3.7 |
Ala curvature (ac-ac) | 41.3 | 3.1 | 33.5 | 2.2 |
Mouth width (ch-ch) | 55.9 | 3.3 | 52.0 | 4.0 |
Bitemporal width (ft-ft) | 115.3 | 3.4 | 111.2 | 2.5 |
Bizygomatic width(zy-zy) | 133.8 | 4.6 | 130.1 | 3.5 |
Bigonial width (go-go) | 106.6 | 5.9 | 96.8 | 2.9 |