Background
Methods
Participants
All | Diabetes first (6/13) | Palaeolithic first (7/13) | |
---|---|---|---|
Sex male/female (n) | 10/3 | 4/2 | 6/1 |
Age (years) | 64 (6) | 63 (6) | 66 (6) |
Height (cm) | 171 (5) | 170 (6) | 172 (4) |
Weight (kg) | 87 (17) | 92 (20) | 82 (13) |
BMI (kg/m2) | 30 (7) | 32 (8) | 28 (4) |
Waist circumference (cm) | 103 (14) | 109 (17) | 97 (9) |
Diabetes duration (years) | 8 (5) | 11 (6) | 6 (4) |
Diabetic values at OGTT yes/no (n) | 12/1 | 6/0 | 6/1 |
Lipid lowering drug (=statin) yes/no (n) | 8/5 | 4/2 | 4/3 |
Drugs per day | 4.3 (2.3) | 3.7 (1.8) | 4.9 (2.7) |
Antihypertensive drugs per day | 1.5 (1.5) | 1.2 (1.2) | 1.9 (1.7) |
Beta-blocker yes/no (n)
| 4/9 | 1/5 | 3/4 |
Thiazide yes/no (n)
| 4/9 | 1/5 | 3/4 |
ACE inhibitor yes/no (n)
| 5/8 | 2/4 | 3/4 |
Angiotensin-II receptor blocker yes/no (n) | 4/9 | 2/4 | 2/5 |
Calcium channel blocker yes/no (n) | 3/10 | 1/5 | 2/5 |
Anti-diabetic drugs per day | 1.2 (0.9) | 1.5 (0.8) | 0.9 (0.9) |
Metformin yes/no (n) | 9/4 | 5/1 | 4/3 |
Dosage, mg/day | 1031 (864) | 1283 (950) | 814 (790) |
Sulphonylurea yes/no (n) | 3/10 | 2/4 | 1/6 |
Thiazolidinedione yes/no (n) | 3/10 | 2/4 | 1/6 |
Plasma adiponectin (µg/ml) | 4.8 (4.16) | 4.8 (2.5) | 4.9 (5.4) |
Plasma adipsin (ng/ml) | 797 (157) | 804 (218) | 792 (178) |
Plasma C-peptide (pg/ml) | 487 (275) | 437 (276) | 531 (289) |
Plasma ghrelin (pg/ml) | 568 (129) | 613 (165) | 530 (82) |
Plasma GIP (pg/ml) | 232 (91.6) | 226 (83) | 237 (105) |
Plasma GLP-1 (pg/ml) | 26.8 (3.39) | 26.4 (4.5) | 27.1 (2.4) |
Plasma glucagon (pg/ml) | 425 (44.34) | 435 (52.4) | 417 (38.4) |
Plasma leptin (ng/ml) | 9.84 (12.18) | 12.1 (17) | 7.9 (6.8) |
Plasma resistin (ng/ml) | 2.21 (0.39) | 2.3 (0.4) | 2.1 (0.4) |
Plasma visfatin (ng/ml) | 2.52 (0.75) | 2.7 (0.5) | 2.4 (0.7) |
Design
Diets
Procedures
Assessment of conditions of frozen blood samples
Analyses
Statistics
Outcome | Palaeolithic diet | Diabetes diet | Delta diets |
p
a
|
---|---|---|---|---|
Adiponectin (µg/ml) | 5.2 ± 4.4 (2.5 to 7.9) | 5.7 ± 5.4 (2.5 to 9.1) | −0.5 ± 1.2 (−1.3 to 0.2) | 0.153 |
Adipsin (ng/ml) | 787 ± 182 (677 to 896) | 776 ± 153 (684 to 869) | 10 ± 79 (−37 to 58) | 0.650 |
C-peptide (pg/ml) | 455 ± 224 (319 to 590) | 412 ± 204 (289 to 535) | 43 ± 262 (−116 to 201) | 0.644 |
Ghrelin (pg/ml) | 540 ± 97 (481 to 598) | 566 ± 145 (478 to 654) | −26 ± 74 (−70 to 18) | 0.226 |
GIP (pg/ml) | 254 ± 266 (93 to 415) | 186 ± 75 (141 to 232) | 68 ± 264 (−92 to 227) | 0.600b
|
GLP-1 (pg/ml) | 27 ± 9.3 (22 to 33) | 27 ± 3.7 (25 to 29) | 0.4 ± 7.7 (−4.3 to 5.12) | 0.235b
|
Glucagon (pg/ml) | 409 ± 40 (385 to 433) | 431 ± 51 (400 to 463) | −22 ± 43 (−48 to 3.9) | 0.089 |
Insulin (pg/ml) | 248 ± 138 (165 to 332) | 336 ± 327 (138 to 533) | −87 ± 240 (−232 to 58) | 0.266 |
Insulinc (pg/ml) | 401 ± 174 (296 to 506) | 391 ± 115 (322 to 461) | 9.8 ± 172 (−94 to 114) | 0.840 |
Leptin (ng/ml) | 5.1 ± 4.9 (2.1 to 8.0) | 7.4 ± 8.3 (2.4 to 12) | −2.3 ± 4.6 (−5.1 to 0.4) |
0.023
b
|
Resistin (ng/ml) | 2.5 ± 0.9 (1.9 to 3.0) | 2.3 ± 0.6 (2.0 to 2.7) | 0.2 ± 0.6 (−0.2 to 0.5) | 0.356 |
Visfatin (ng/ml) | 2.4 ± 0.7 (2.0 to 2.9) | 2.5 ± 0.6 (2.1 to 2.8) | −0.1 ± 0.5 (−0.3 to 0.3) | 0.906 |
Weight (kg) | 81 ± 13 (74 to 88) | 84 ± 15 (76 to 92) | −3.3 ± 3.8 (−5.7 to −1.0) |
0.008
|
Results
Participant flow
Baseline data
Outcomes
Correlations and linear regression
Pearson’s correlation ra
| Spearman’s correlation rb
| Adjusted R2
|
p
c
| |
---|---|---|---|---|
Leptin (ng/ml) versus | ||||
Fasting insulin (ng/ml) | 0.555 | 0.049 | ||
Fat (g) | −0.665 | 0.013 | ||
Fat (%) | −0.555 | 0.049 | ||
SAF (g) | −0.593 | 0.033 | ||
Fatty acid C16:0 (g) | −0.571 | 0.041 | ||
Fatty acid C18:0 (g) | −0.555 | 0.049 | ||
Glucagon (pg/ml) versus | ||||
AUC insulin0-120 (nmol/l min) | 0.946 | 0.383 | 0.015 | |
Stimulated AUC insulin0-120 (nmol/l min) | 0.558 | 0.249 | 0.047 | |
Fasting plasma insulin (pmol/l) | 0.637 | 0.352 | 0.019 | |
Satiety quotient for glycaemic index per meal (RS) | −0.562 | 0.254 | 0.045 | |
Glycaemic load (g) | 0.63 | 0.342 | 0.021 | |
Glycaemic index | 0.731 | 0.491 | 0.005 | |
Fatty acid C20:5, n-3, EPA (g)
| 0.581 | 0.277 | 0.037 | |
Fatty acid C22:6, n-3, DHA (g) | 0.575 | 0.27 | 0.04 | |
Vitamin B-12 (µg) | 0.571 | 0.265 | 0.041 | |
Adipsin (ng/ml) versus | ||||
Satiety quotient for GL per meal (RS/kg) | 0.581 | 0.277 | 0.037 | |
GIP (pg/ml) versus | ||||
Fasting plasma insulin (pmol/l) | 0.555 | 0.049 | ||
GLP-1 (pg/ml) versus | ||||
Stimulated AUC insulin (nmol/l min) | 0.654 | 0.015 | ||
AUC insulin (nmol/l min) | 0.67 | 0.012 | ||
Resistin (ng/ml) versus | ||||
Fasting plasma insulin (pmol/l) | −0.728 | 0.451 | 0.041 | |
Satiety quotient for GL per meal (RS/kg) | 0.810 | 0.598 | 0.015 | |
Visfatin (ng/ml) versus | ||||
Fasting plasma glucose (mmol/l) | −0.557 | 0.248 | 0.048 |