Background
Methods
Study area
Study design and data collection
Exploration of awareness and perceptions of pesticides use, storage and disposal
Assessment of knowledge and practices regarding pesticide use
Assessment of types and classes of agricultural pesticides
Analysis of qualitative and quantitative data
Results
Characteristics of pesticide retailers and farmers
Variable | Category | Percentage (n) |
---|---|---|
Gender | Males | 51.5% (220) |
Females | 48.5% (207) | |
Age (years) | 18–30 | 16.9% (72) |
31–40 | 31.1% (133) | |
41–50 | 28.3% (121) | |
51–60 | 17.6% (75) | |
> 60 | 6.1% (26) | |
Education attainment | Primary school | 85.2% (364) |
Secondary school | 9.6% (41) | |
College/university | 0.7% (3) | |
Professional training | 0.5% (2) | |
No formal training | 4.0% (17) | |
Main economic activitiesa | Small-scale subsistence farming activities | 51.3% (219) |
Large-scale farming for food and business | 48.5% (207) | |
Livestock keeping | 9.8% (12) | |
Small-scale business | 41.7% (178) | |
Large-scale business | 2.8% (3) | |
Private employment | 0.7% (2) | |
Others | 0.5% (42) |
Types and classes of agricultural pesticides
Pesticide type | Active ingredient (s) | N | % | Chemical class |
---|---|---|---|---|
Insecticides (N = 62) | Abamectin | 4 | 6.5 | Macrocyclic lactones |
Alphacypermethrin | 3 | 4.8 | Pyrethroids | |
Carbaryl and permethrin | 1 | 1.6 | Carbamates and pyrethroids | |
Carbofuran | 1 | 1.6 | N-methyl carbamate Ib | |
Carbaryl and lambda-cyhalothrin | 2 | 3.2 | Carbamates and pyrethroids | |
Chlorpyrifos | 5 | 8.1 | Organophosphates | |
Cypermethrin | 1 | 1.6 | Pyrethroids | |
Cypermethrin and chlorpyrifos | 1 | 1.6 | Pyrethroids and organophosphates | |
Cypermethrin and imidacloprid | 3 | 4.8 | Pyrethroids and neonicotinoids | |
Deltamethrin | 1 | 1.6 | Pyrethroids | |
Diazinon | 2 | 3.2 | Organophosphates | |
Dichlorvos | 3 | 4.8 | Organophosphates | |
Dimethoate | 1 | 1.6 | Organophosphates | |
Fenitrothion and deltamethrin | 3 | 4.8 | Organophosphates and pyrethroids | |
Fipronil | 1 | 1.6 | Phenylpyrazole | |
Imidacloprid | 3 | 4.8 | Neonicotinoids | |
Imidacloprid and beta-cyfluthrin | 2 | 3.2 | Neonicotinoids and pyrethroids | |
Lambda-cyhalothrin | 11 | 17.7 | Pyrethroids | |
Lambda-cyhalothrin and acetamiprid | 1 | 1.6 | Neonicotinoids and pyrethroids | |
Malathion | 1 | 1.6 | Organophosphates | |
Permethrin | 1 | 1.6 | Pyrethroids | |
Pirimiphos-methyl | 2 | 3.2 | Organophosphates | |
Pirimiphos-methyl and permethrin | 3 | 4.8 | Organophosphates and pyrethroids | |
Pirimiphos-methyl and thiamethoxam | 1 | 1.6 | Organophosphates and neonicotinoids | |
Profenofos | 5 | 8.1 | Organophosphates | |
Herbicide (N = 29) | Bispyribac sodium | 1 | 3.5 | Bispyribac sodium |
S-metolachlor and atrazine | 1 | 3.5 | Triazines | |
Amine salt | 4 | 13.8 | Aryloxyacides | |
Atrazine | 1 | 3.5 | Dinitroanilines | |
Glyphosate | 17 | 58.6 | Amino-phosphonates | |
Paraquat | 4 | 13.8 | Pyridines | |
Triclopyr | 1 | 3.5 | Pyridines | |
Fungicide (N = 11) | Monopotassium and dipotassium phosphonates | 1 | 9.1 | Phosphonic acid |
Chlorothalonil | 3 | 27.3 | Organochlorine | |
Mancozeb | 1 | 9.1 | Dithiocarbamate | |
Mancozeb and cymoxanil | 1 | 9.1 | Acylalanine and dithiocarbamate | |
Metalaxyl and mancozeb | 5 | 45.5 | Dithiocarbamate and acylalanine | |
Insecticide + fungicide (N = 2) | Imidacloprid, metalaxyl and carbendazim | 2 | 100 | Neonicotinoids, acylalanine and benzimidazole |
WHO class/family | Brand name | Active ingredient(s) |
---|---|---|
Organophosphates and pyrethroids | Simba powder 113DP | 10 g/kg of fenitrothion and 1.3 g/kg of deltamethrin |
Duduba 450EC | 350 g/l of chlorpyrifos and 100 g/l of cypermethrin | |
Mupa dust | 1.0% of fenitrothion and 0.13% of deltamethrin | |
Stocal super dust | 16 g/kg of pirimiphos-methyl and 3 g/kg of permethrin | |
Shumba super dust | 1% of fenitrothion and 0.13% of deltamethrin | |
Actellic Gold Dust | 16 g/kg of pirimiphos-methyl and 3.6 g/kg of thiamethoxam | |
Haigram 90 dusting powder (DP) | 6 g/kg of pirimiphos-methyl and 3 g/kg of permethrin | |
Actellic super dust | 16 g/kg of pirimiphos-methyl and 3 g/kg of permethrin | |
Pyrethroids and neonicotinoids | Amekan C344 SE | 144 g/l of cypermethrin and 200 g/l of imidacloprid |
Rapid-attack 344SE | 144 g/l of cypermethrin and 200 g/l of imidacloprid | |
Blast 60 EC | 3% g/l lambda-cyhalothrin and 3% g/l of acetamiprid | |
Buffalo 450OD | 2.5% of beta- cyfluthrin and 7.5% of imidacloprid | |
Thunder Oil Dispersion (OD) 145 | 45 g/l of beta-cyfluthrin and 100 g/l of imidacloprid | |
Farmguard 344SE | 144 g/l of cypermethrin and 200 g/l of imidacloprid | |
Carbamates and pyrethroids | Bakiller | 5% w/w of carbaryl and 0.1% w/w of lambda cyhalothrin |
Akheri powder | 5% w/w carbaryl and 0.1% w/w lambda-cyhalothrin | |
Ultravin® Dudu dust | 5% w/w of carbaryl, 1% w/w of permethrin and 94% w/w of inert carriers | |
Neonicotinoids, acylalanine and benzimidazole | Seed plus 20 wettable soluble (WS) | 10% imidacloprid, 5% metalaxyl and 5% carbendazim WS |
Class of insecticide | Trade name (active ingredient (s) | Primary site/mode of action in an insect/vector | Agricultural use | Public health use | Known resistance and resistance mechanism in disease vectors |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Pyrethroids | Karate 5 EC (lambda-cyhalothrin) | Voltage-gated sodium channels/neurotoxic | Control of bollworms and aphids in vegetables and cotton [42] | Knock-down mutation [45] Metabolic resistance [46] Cuticle thickening [47] | |
Organophosphates | Dasba 40 EC (chloropyrifos) | Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors | Insecticide against insect pests in fruits, beans, tomatoes, cotton, coffee and green vegetables [48] | Disease and vector control (IRS and LLINs) [49] | Metabolic resistance [50] |
Neonicotinoids | Amekan C344 SE (200 g/l of imidacloprid and 144 g/l of cypermethrin) | Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (n AChRs) | Systemic insecticides with contact and stomach action against sucking and chewing pests on cotton, vegetables and flowers [51]. | ||
Carbamates | Farmerzeb 80 WP (80% WP of mancozeb) | Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors | A broad spectrum protectant and preventive fungicide for the control of fungal diseases on vegetables | Disease and vector control (IRS and LLINs) [56] |
Awareness and perceptions of pesticide use among agrovet store retailers
“I have been selling pesticides for a long time. I started to work in Ifakara town shops. Also, the owner of the shop understands pesticides, and she does assist with information whenever needed” (male retailer).
“Most of my customers do not know the dosage of chemicals to use. I tell them that quantity of chemicals depends on the size of the farm, amount and type weeds, and particular for insecticides it depends on the pest problem, if they ask me I always ask them how big their problem is, then I tell them to add 250 mls of Agroround (480 g/l of glyphosate) to a 15 L bucket” (female retailer).
Crop calendar and pesticide usage practices
“Normally in the rain season there are few pests and can easily be destroyed by rainwater. From my experience, the rice seed cultivated in rainy season is not vulnerable to pests, thus different from the swamp rice farming that relies on irrigation, without pesticides application you will not have good produces” (female farmer).
Knowledge and practices of farmers regarding pesticides and pesticide application
“I always get instructions from the seller of the pesticides at the agrovet shop, but sometimes I read from the leaflet on the pesticide bottle only those written in Swahili” (female farmer).
Pesticide class | Trade name | Active ingredient (s) | Class of the pesticide | Knapsack spray dilution by farmers ml/l, g/l of water | Recommended knapsack dilution rate ml/l, g/l of water | Recommended dose (ml/ha) | Target crop |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Insecticide | Karate 5EC | 50 gm/l of lambda-cyhalothrin | Pyrethroids | 15–40 ml/20 l | 12 ml/20 l | 300–400 ml/ha | Rice, maize, vegetables, fruits, green pepper, watermelon, beans green peas and tomatoes |
Amekan C344 SE | 144 g/l of cypermethrin and 200 g/l of imidacloprid | Pyrethroids and Neonicotinoids | 30 ml/20 l | 8–10 ml/15 l | 500 ml/ha | Tomatoes, watermelon, okra, potatoes, rice, spinach, maize, green pepper and cabbages | |
Duduba 450EC | 100 g/l of cypermethrin and 350 g/l of chlorpyrifos | Pyrethroids and organophosphates | 30–50 ml/20 l | 10 ml/20 l | 400 ml/ha | Rice, cucumber, tomatoes, green pepper, cereals crops and fruits | |
Buffalo 100OD | 75 g/l of imidacloprid and 25 g/l of beta-cyfluthrin | Neonicotinoids and pyrethroids | 35–60 ml/20 l | 10 ml/20 l | 500 ml/ha | Tomatoes, maize, green peas potatoes, green pepper, beans and onions | |
Ninja 5EC | 50 g/l of lambda-cyhalothrin | Pyrethroids | 25 ml/15 l | 40–60 ml/20 l | 150–400 ml/ha | Rice, fruits, green peas vegetables and maize | |
KungFu 5EC | 50 gm/l of lambda-cyhalothrin | Pyrethroids | 15–40 ml/20 l | 12 ml/20 l | 300–400 ml/ha | Tomatoes, watermelon, cucumber, rice, onions, vegetables, fruits and green pepper | |
Suracron 720 EC/720/Profecron 720 EC | 720 g/l of profenofos | Organophosphates | 200–350 ml/20 l | 20–40 ml/15 l | 500–800 ml/ha | Cabbage and tomatoes, okra, eggplant, cucumber and watermelon | |
Nogozone 60 EC | 600 g/l diazinon | Organophosphates | 20–40 ml/20 l | 5–30 ml/15 l | 150–700 ml/ha | Watermelon and cucumber | |
Herbicide | 2,4 d Amine | 720 g/l of 2, 4 d-dimethyl amine salt | Aryloxyacides | 150–300 ml/16 l | 200 ml/20 l | 2000 ml/ha | Rice and maize |
Roundup | 360 g/l of glyphosate | Amino-phosphonates | 300–350 ml/15 l | 200–300 ml/20 l | 2000–3000 ml/ha | Rice and maize | |
Parapaz 200 SL | 200 g/l of paraquat dichloride | Pyridines | 300–350 ml/15 l | 100–200 ml/20 l | 800–1600 ml/ha | Maize, rice, sugarcane and tomatoes | |
Fungicide | Farmerzeb 800 WP | 800 g/kg of mancozeb | Dithiocarbamate | 60 g/15 l | 40–60 g/20 l | 1000––3000 g/ha | Tomatoes, African eggplant, green pepper and potatoes |
Linkonil 500 SC | 500 g/l of chlorothalonil | Organochlorine fungicide | 20–50 ml/20 l | 46 ml/20 l | 1000–3500 ml/ha | Tomatoes, okra, eggplant, watermelon and cucumber | |
Victory 72 WP | 640 g/kg of mancozeb and 80 g/kg of metalaxyl | Dithiocarbamate and acylalanine | 60–80 g/20 l | 50 g/20 l | 2000–2500 g/ha | Tomatoes, okra, and potatoes, cucumber, watermelon and cabbage |
Frequency and spraying patterns of pesticides
Application frequency | No. of farmers | Percentage (%) |
---|---|---|
Twice every week | 120 | 28.1 |
Once every 2 weeks | 61 | 14.3 |
2–4 times per growing season | 71 | 16.6 |
Any time I find pests in the farm | 111 | 26.0 |
I do not remember | 64 | 15.0 |
“Since most of the insecticides are not as effective as they used to be, for instance, I have to re-apply Karate (lambda-cyhalothrin) two times after every week. I think it is time the effectiveness of the insecticide has depleted and cannot kill or repel pests anymore. Sometimes, I re-apply more often because there are a lot of insect-pests coming from neighbouring farms, especially those where spraying was delayed” (male farmer).
“I spray Kung-fu (lambda-cyhalothrin) in the dry and wet season but mostly in the dry season because this is the period there are a lot of pests. In the wet season, there are few or no pests because of rainfall. Pest does not survive when there is a lot of water, unlike in dry season” (female farmer).
Challenges faced by the farmers regarding the usage of pesticides
“You will find in few days sometimes even the following day after spraying there are still some pests in the farms. I surveyed and tried to spray different pesticides other than the ones I’m used to. I realized rapid attack (a mixture of cypermethrin and imidacloprid) and Amekan (a mixture of cypermethrin and imidacloprid) are far better and effective insecticides than Duduba (a mixture of cypermethrin and chlorpyrifos) alone against most of the pests affecting vegetables, watermelons and rice” (male farmer).
Use of pesticide mixtures
Pesticides cocktail | Type of pesticides | Pesticide class |
---|---|---|
KungFu and Duduba | Two insecticides | Two pyrethroids and one organophosphate |
2,4-D and Roundup | Two herbicides | One aryloxyacetic and one amino-phosphonates |
Booster + Supercron | One fertiliser and One insecticide | Nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium and trace elements and one organophosphate |
Karate and KungFu | Two insecticides | Two pyrethroids |
Rapid attack and Amekan | Two insecticides | Two (pyrethroids and neonicotinoids) |
Echlonil and Karate | One fungicide and one insecticide | One organochlorine fungicide and one pyrethroid |
Rapid attack and Farmerzeb | One insecticide and one fungicide | One (pyrethroids and neonicotinoids) and one dithiocarbamate |