Background
Methods
Study design
Measures
Socio-demographics variables
Socioeconomic variables
Health behaviours
Anthropometric variables
Outcome variable
Statistical analysis
Ethics
Results
Descriptive characteristics of the respondents
Characteristics | Male | Female | Total | p-valuea |
---|---|---|---|---|
n (%) | n (%) | % | ||
Age | ||||
50–59 years | 904 (41.0) | 707 (38.9) | 40.1 | |
60–69 years | 612 (26.5) | 528 (28.3) | 27.3 | 0.48 |
70 years and above | 611 (32.5) | 727 (32.8) | 32.6 | |
Residence | ||||
Urban | 1342 (59.9) | 1093 (59.0) | 59.5 | 0.59 |
Rural | 785 (40.1) | 869 (41.0) | 40.5 | |
Marital Status | ||||
Never Married | 24 (1.3) | 24 (1.3) | 1.3 | |
Currently Married/Cohabiting | 1785 (85.4) | 537 (30.9) | 59.3 | <0.01 |
Separated/Divorced/Widowed | 318 (13.3) | 1401 (67.9) | 39.4 | |
Level of Education | ||||
No Schooling | 957 (43.5) | 1303 (65.6) | 54.1 | |
Primary or <6 year Schooling | 471 (22.5) | 379 (20.0) | 21.3 | <0.01 |
Secondary/High School | 594 (28.9) | 241 (12.3) | 20.9 | |
College/University | 105 (5.1) | 39 (2.1) | 3.7 | |
Wealth Quintile | ||||
1 (Lowest) | 404 (16.4) | 411 (20.4) | 18.3 | |
2 | 382 (17.1) | 419 (21.2) | 19.1 | |
3 | 425 (20.2) | 400 (21.6) | 20.9 | <0.01 |
4 | 443 (21.7) | 396 (19.9) | 20.8 | |
5 (Highest) | 471 (24.6) | 333 (16.9) | 20.9 | |
Type of Employer | ||||
Never Employed/Work | 34 (1.4) | 27 (2.0) | 1.6 | |
Public | 304 (15.0) | 95 (5.1) | 10.3 | |
Private | 120 (5.5) | 34 (1.8) | 3.8 | <0.01 |
Self-employed | 1520 (70.9) | 1666 (83.6) | 77.0 | |
Informal | 149 (7.2) | 140 (7.4) | 7.3 | |
Physical Activity | ||||
Low | 396 (21.4) | 581 (29.2) | 25.1 | |
Moderate | 256 (12.1) | 234 (12.2) | 12.2 | <0.01 |
High | 1453 (66.5) | 1127 (58.6) | 62.7 | |
Alcohol Consumption | ||||
Non Drinkers | 654 (33.1) | 1044 (53.4) | 42.8 | |
Daily Drinkers | 690 (31.4) | 201 (11.5) | 21.9 | <0.01 |
Occasional Drinkers | 482 (22.6) | 421 (22.1) | 22.3 | |
Former Drinkers | 269 (12.9) | 260 (13.0) | 13.0 | |
Smoking | ||||
Non-Smokers | 1222 (59.9) | 1802 (91.6) | 75.1 | |
Current Daily Smokers | 327 (12.0) | 74 (3.9) | 8.1 | <0.01 |
Former Smokers | 570 (28.1) | 85 (4.5) | 16.8 | |
Fruits/Vegetables Intake | ||||
Adequate | 405 (21.1) | 426 (22.2) | 21.6 | 0.45 |
Inadequate | 1722 (78.9) | 1536 (77.8) | 78.4 | |
Body Mass Index | ||||
Underweight | 426 (20.0) | 359 (18.8) | 19.4 | |
Normal | 1180 (55.2) | 887 (46.6) | 51.1 | <0.01 |
Overweight | 299 (15.2) | 338 (18.0) | 16.5 | |
Obese | 164 (9.6) | 310 (16.6) | 12.9 |
Prevalence of diabetes
Characteristics | Male | Female | Total | P-value (χ2)a |
---|---|---|---|---|
% (95% CI) [n = 73] | % (95% CI) [n = 89] | % (95% CI) [n = 162] | ||
Age | ||||
50–59 years | 2.44 (1.52–3.95) | 3.25 (2.08–5.08) | 2.83 (1.99–4.01) | |
60–69 years | 5.75 (3.50–8.66) | 5.75 (3.55–9.05) | 5.62 (3.88–8.08) | 0.01 |
70 years and above | 2.55 (1.45–4.59) | 4.90 (3.51–7.01) | 3.74 (2.70–5.17) | |
Residence | ||||
Rural | 1.94 (1.21–3.15) | 2.71 (1.79–4.18) | 2.33 (1.65–3.27) | |
Urban | 5.46 (3.61–7.93) | 7.06 (5.35–9.25) | 6.19 (4.75–8.03) | <0.01 |
Level of Education | ||||
No Schooling | 1.04 (0.53–2.11) | 3.72 (2.71–5.09) | 2.60 (1.92–3.53) | |
Primary | 3.01 (1.61–5.59) | 4.42 (2.75–7.07) | 3.65 (2.50–5.32) | <0.01 |
Secondary/High School | 4.76 (3.01–6.82) | 8.12 (4.73–15.8) | 5.71 (4.02–7.68) | |
College/University | 16.5 (9.50–27.1) | 8.18 (2.63–23.4) | 15.2 (8.70–22.7) | |
Wealth Quintile | ||||
1 (Lowest) | 0.61 (0.19–1.97) | 3.66 (2.10–6.41) | 2.24 (1.34–3.79) | |
2 | 2.27 (1.10–4.78) | 1.70 (0.84–3.50) | 1.97 (1.20–3.30) | |
3 | 1.88 (1.00–3.53) | 3.11 (1.70–5.72) | 2.49 (1.59–3.92) | <0.01 |
4 | 3.73 (2.14–6.53) | 7.03 (4.24–11.2) | 5.24 (3.58–7.54) | |
5 (Highest) | 6.81 (4.29–10.1) | 7.82 (5.57–11.0) | 7.20 (5.33–9.45) | |
Type of Employer | ||||
Never Employed | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 4.42 (1.11–21.5) | 2.53 (0.66–11.4) | |
Public | 6.75 (3.63–10.8) | 6.48 (3.12–13.0) | 6.69 (4.06–9.85) | |
Private | 6.90 (3.37–14.0) | 0.00 (0.00–0.00) | 5.28 (2.64–10.9) | 0.02 |
Self-employed | 2.65 (1.81–3.89) | 4.65 (3.56–5.96) | 3.69 (2.89–4.68) | |
Informal | 1.09 (0.29–4.70) | 2.53 (0.99–6.85) | 1.79 (0.85–4.20) | |
Physical Activity | ||||
Low | 5.93 (3.55–8.90) | 7.38 (5.63–9.62) | 6.74 (0.42–8.51) | |
Moderate | 5.21 (3.00–9.07) | 7.05 (4.28–12.1) | 6.10 (0.42–9.01) | <0.01 |
High | 2.18 (1.42–3.41) | 2.49 (1.64–3.80) | 2.32 (0.42–3.15) | |
Fruits/Vegetables Intake | ||||
Adequate | 3.27 (1.63–5.26) | 4.78 (2.81–7.59) | 4.01 (2.61–5.46) | |
Inadequate | 3.37 (2.44–4.75) | 4.42 (3.47–5.74) | 3.87 (3.11–4.92) | 0.85 |
Alcohol | ||||
Non Drinkers | 2.18 (1.26–3.95) | 4.34 (3.27–5.84) | 3.47 (2.70–4.58) | |
Daily Drinkers | 2.29 (1.21–4.35) | 0.67 (0.17–2.68) | 1.88 (1.01–3.55) | <0.01 |
Occasional Drinkers | 5.23 (2.79–8.53) | 4.74 (2.85–7.44) | 4.99 (3.26–6.97) | |
Former Drinkers | 5.61 (3.11–9.96) | 7.22 (3.79–13.4) | 6.38 (4.02–10.1) | |
Smoking | ||||
Non-Smokers | 3.29 (2.32–4.78) | 4.65 (3.70–5.95) | 4.09 (3.36–5.10) | |
Daily Smokers | 1.84 (0.54–6.10) | 4.01 (1.07–14.6) | 2.34 (0.96–5.68) | 0.41 |
Former Smokers | 4.17 (2.37–6.43) | 1.79 (0.13–6.29) | 3.86 (2.16–5.74) | |
Body Mass Index | ||||
Underweight | 1.09 (0.38–3.05) | 2.02 (0.91–4.59) | 3.11 (2.33–4.22) | |
Normal | 3.08 (2.08–4.61) | 3.16 (2.08–4.87) | 1.52 (0.81–2.89) | <0.01 |
Overweight | 4.35 (2.22–6.99) | 4.60 (2.71–7.71) | 4.48 (2.92–6.29) | |
Obesity | 7.74 (4.22–14.5) | 9.97 (6.91–14.6) | 9.10 (6.48–13.2) |
Risk factors of diabetes among older adults
Characteristics | Univariate | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
OR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | |
Sex | |||||
Male | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Female | 1.38 (0.96–1.96) | 1.34 (0.93–1.93) | 1.81 (1.23–2.67)* | 1.63 (1.07–2.50)* | 1.50 (0.98–2.30) |
Age | |||||
50–59 years | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
60–69 years | 2.04 (1.21–3.45) | 2.10 (1.25–3.55)* | 2.41 (1.41–4.14)* | 2.32 (1.32–4.07)* | 2.34 (1.28–4.28)* |
70 years and above | 1.33 (0.80–2.23) | 1.39 (0.83–2.35) | 1.96 (1.14–3.37)* | 1.70 (0.96–3.01) | 1.91 (1.05–3.44)* |
Residence | |||||
Rural | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Urban | 2.77 (1.77–4.34) | 2.81 (1.80–4.38)* | 1.87 (1.14–3.07)* | 1.45 (0.85–2.45) | 1.27 (0.75–2.15) |
Education Level | |||||
No schooling | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Primary School | 1.42 (0.88–2.27) | 1.48 (0.89–2.47) | 1.44 (0.85–2.44) | 1.30 (0.76–2.19) | |
Secondary/High | 2.21 (1.41–3.46) | 2.28 (1.33–3.89)* | 2.21 (1.29–3.79)* | 2.08 (1.19–3.65)* | |
University | 6.24 (3.30–11.8) | 5.14 (2.44–10.8)* | 4.90 (2.30–10.5)* | 5.07 (2.35–10.9)* | |
Wealth | |||||
1 (Lowest) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
2 | 0.88 (0.45–1.71) | 0.81 (0.42–1.56) | 0.71 (0.36–1.38) | 0.64 (0.32–1.27) | |
3 | 1.11 (0.56–2.21) | 0.92 (0.48–1.78) | 0.84 (0.43–1.66) | 0.80 (0.40–1.59) | |
4 | 2.38 (1.23–4.58) | 1.58 (0.80–3.12) | 1.49 (0.72–3.07) | 1.18 (0.58–2.41) | |
5 (Highest) | 3.31 (1.81–6.08) | 1.61 (0.81–3.17) | 1.46 (0.72–2.96) | 1.14 (0.54–2.39) | |
Physical Activity | |||||
High | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
Moderate | 2.77 (1.77–4.34) | 2.15 (1.32–3.50)* | 2.17 (1.32–3.56)* | ||
Low | 2.96 (2.06–4.23) | 1.88 (1.24–2.85)* | 1.67 (1.12–2.50)* | ||
Alcohol | |||||
Non Drinkers | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
Daily Drinkers | 0.53 (0.27–1.06) | 0.65 (0.33–1.28) | 0.59 (0.29–1.20) | ||
Occasional Drinkers | 1.37 (0.87–2.18) | 1.30 (0.81–2.10) | 1.27 (0.77–2.09) | ||
Former Drinkers | 1.87 (1.09–3.21) | 1.54 (0.89–2.68) | 1.57 (0.90–2.76) | ||
Fruits/Vegetables Intake | |||||
Adequate | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
Inadequate | 1.03 (0.68–1.58) | 1.12 (0.72–1.72) | 1.17 (0.69–2.90) | ||
Smoking | |||||
Never Smoker | 1 | 1 | 1 | ||
Daily/Not Daily | 0.56 (0.22–1.43) | 1.39 (0.52–3.72) | 1.08 (0.38–3.08) | ||
Not Current Smoker | 0.85 (0.52–1.38) | 1.07 (0.64–1.80) | 1.19 (0.71–2.01) | ||
Body Mass Index | |||||
Normal | 1 | 1 | |||
Underweight | 2.08 (1.07–4.05) | 1.85 (0.97–3.55) | |||
Overweight | 2.88 (1.41–5.92) | 1.91 (0.93–3.92) | |||
Obese | 6.57 (3.03–14.3) | 3.61 (1.69–7.70)* |
Characteristics | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 |
---|---|---|---|---|
AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | |
Age | ||||
50–59 years | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
60–69 years | 2.45 (1.26–4.72)* | 2.70 (1.42–5.13)* | 2.77 (1.37–5.59)* | 2.58 (1.29–5.18)* |
70 years and above | 1.11 (0.51–2.43) | 1.61 (0.91–3.62) | 1.63 (0.74–3.62) | 1.78 (0.80–3.97) |
Residence | ||||
Rural | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Urban | 2.91 (1.54–5.53)* | 1.81 (0.91–3.62) | 1.54 (0.75–3.16) | 1.60 (0.76–3.38) |
Education Level | ||||
No schooling | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Primary School/Less | 2.83 (1.12–7.15)* | 3.41 (1.29–9.04)* | 2.71 (1.02–7.19)* | |
Secondary/High | 3.71 (1.60–8.61)* | 3.70 (1.46–9.40)* | 3.61 (1.38–9.47)* | |
University | 12.2 (4.47–33.3)* | 12.3 (4.14–36.6)* | 12.8 (4.20–39.1)* | |
Wealth | ||||
1 (Lowest) | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
2 | 3.22 (0.84–12.4) | 2.63 (0.84–10.5) | 2.44 (0.63–9.43) | |
3 | 1.98 (0.53–7.32) | 2.23 (0.53–8.81) | 1.84 (0.49–6.89) | |
4 | 3.13 (0.76–13.0) | 3.29 (0.76–15.0) | 1.97 (0.48–8.15) | |
5 (Highest) | 3.93 (1.01–15.4)* | 4.29 (0.99–18.6) | 2.60 (0.65–10.5) | |
Physical Activity | ||||
High | 1 | 1 | ||
Moderate | 1.78 (0.83–3. 81) | 1.58 (0.71–3.56) | ||
Low | 1.70 (0.83–3.48) | 1.32 (0.67–2.59) | ||
Alcohol | ||||
Non Drinkers | 1 | 1 | ||
Daily Drinkers | 1.02 (0.46–2.27) | 0.90 (0.41–2.01) | ||
Occasional Drinkers | 1.80 (0.80–4.06) | 1.79 (0.78–4.09) | ||
Former Drinkers | 1.91 (0.80–4.52) | 1.91 (0.82–4.49) | ||
Fruits/Vegetables Intake | ||||
Adequate | 1 | 1 | ||
Inadequate | 1.41 (0.70–2.86) | 1.42 (0.69–2.90) | ||
Smoking | ||||
Never Smoker | 1 | 1 | ||
Daily/Not Daily | 1.63 (0.44–6.03) | 0.76 (0.20–2.86) | ||
Not Current Smoker | 1.28 (0.71–2.30) | 1.35 (0.76–2.39) | ||
Body Mass Index | ||||
Normal | 1 | |||
Underweight | 2.41 (0.81–7.22) | |||
Overweight | 2.48 (0.73–8.40) | |||
Obese | 3.74 (0.93–15.1) |
Characteristics | Model 1 | Model 2 | Model 3 | Model 4 |
---|---|---|---|---|
AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | AOR (95% CI) | |
Age | ||||
50–59 years | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
60–69 years | 1.84 (0.93–3.66) | 2.08 (1.01–4.31)* | 1.75 (0.85–3.62) | 1.81 (0.85–3.85) |
70 years and above | 1.63 (0.86–3.07) | 2.09 (1.07–4.08)* | 1.56 (0.75–3.22) | 1.83 (0.88–3.80) |
Residence | ||||
Rural | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 |
Urban | 2.74 (1.62–4.63)* | 1.95 (1.03–3.70)* | 1.47 (0.77–2.80) | 1.07 (0.56–2.05) |
Education Level | ||||
No schooling | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
Primary School /Less | 1.11 (0.56–2.19) | 0.96 (0.46–1.97) | 0.90 (0.45–1.82) | |
Secondary /High | 1.89 (0.81–4.41) | 1.84 (0.79–4.26) | 1.55 (0.63–3.81) | |
University | 1.48 (0.37–5.97) | 1.34 (0.33–5.48) | 1.23 (0.32–4.70) | |
Wealth | ||||
1 (Lowest) | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
2 | 0.44 (0.17–1.12) | 0.39 (0.15–1.01) | 0.33 (0.12–0.91)* | |
3 | 0.76 (0.35–1.66) | 0.57 (0.25–1.28) | 0.55 (0.23–1.29) | |
4 | 1.44 (0.65–3.17) | 1.21 (0.52–2.81) | 1.07 (0.43–2.67) | |
5 (Highest) | 1.34 (0.58–3.10) | 1.02 (0.44–2.39) | 0.87 (0.33–2.30) | |
Physical Activity | ||||
High | 1 | 1 | ||
Moderate | 2.79 (1.34–5.78)* | 3.20 (1.53–6.69)* | ||
Low | 2.17 (1.25–3.76)* | 2.11 (1.21–3.69)* | ||
Alcohol | ||||
Non Drinkers | 1 | 1 | ||
Daily Drinkers | 0.18 (0.04–0.81)* | 0.18 (0.04–0.82)* | ||
Occasional Drinkers | 1.05 (0.58–1.88) | 0.97 (0.52–1.83) | ||
Former Drinkers | 1.55 (0.75–3.20) | 1.68 (0.78–3.61) | ||
Fruits/Vegetables Intake | ||||
Adequate | 1 | 1 | ||
Inadequate | 0.95 (0.55–1.65) | 0.98 (0.54–1.79) | ||
Smoking | ||||
Never Smoker | 1 | 1 | ||
Daily/Not Daily | 1.70 (0.37–7.84) | 0.76 (0.44–11.0) | ||
Former Smoker | 1.00 (1.00–1.00) | 1.00 (1.00–1.00) | ||
Body Mass Index | ||||
Normal | 1 | |||
Underweight | 1.77 (0.69–4.51) | |||
Overweight | 2.03 (0.74–5.57) | |||
Obese | 4.81 (1.92–12.0)* |