Introduction
There is currently a large-scale global unmet need for rehabilitation. An analysis using the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) Study data from 2019 suggests that 2.41 billion individuals worldwide had conditions that would benefit from rehabilitation, which altogether contributed to 310 million years of life lived with disability (YLD), a 63% increase from 1990 due to population growth and aging [
1]. While men and women had a similar prevalence of conditions that would benefit from rehabilitation—1.19 billion vs. 1.22 billion—women accounted for more YLDs (163 million) than men (146 million) [
1]. This suggests that women could be more affected by a lack of access to and use of rehabilitation services. Because 77% of global physical rehabilitation needs are in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) [
2], where rehabilitation services are limited [
3], a gender and/or sex disparity in global rehabilitation needs is likely to be pronounced in such settings.
Gender is multifaceted and includes concepts such as gender identity, gender expression, and social roles, norms, and expectations. Gender is enacted in everyday social practices that are embedded within social institutions and larger societies [
4]. Gender identity is often understood in public health as a person’s deeply felt, internal, and individual experience of gender [
5], although gender theorists like Connell [
6] have importantly questioned whether “weld[ing] one’s personality into a united whole [may be] to refuse internal diversity and openness”. Gender expression is closely related to but not determined by gender identity and refers to how a person presents or expresses their gender. Sex typically refers to biological and bodily processes and characteristics like phenotype, genetic makeup, and hormone profile that can change throughout the life course due to medical procedures, environmental conditions, and events like menopause [
7,
8]. It is important to acknowledge that while sex is related to biological and bodily processes and factors, it is also a construct that is used to categorize other people in our highly gendered society [
9]. Diverse dimensions of sex and gender interact with each other and with other structural and social factors (such as age, disability, and race) to inform health and wellbeing [
10,
11]. A large body of existing research has explored gender as a power relation and social determinant of health [
10,
12], and how gender inequality is embedded within health systems [
13‐
15], such as through inequitable: access to resources, roles and practices, norms and beliefs, decision-making power and autonomy, and laws, policies, and institutions. Less is known globally about the role of sex and gender (as both identity and power relation) and how they interact with each other and with other social structures and factors to shape rehabilitation access, use, adherence, and outcomes within health systems.
In this scoping review, we rely on the WHO’s definition of rehabilitation as “a set of interventions designed to optimize functioning and reduce disability in individuals with health conditions in interaction with their environment” [
16]. Assistive technology (AT), which includes products that help to “maintain or improve an individual’s functioning and independence,” [
17] and caregiving are important parts of rehabilitation that enable and promote social inclusion and participation and are accordingly encompassed in our definition of rehabilitation.
In this scoping review, we explore existing literature about the relationship between sex and/or gender and rehabilitation to understand what is known as well as to better understand gaps in the literature with the aim of informing the global rehabilitation and health systems research agenda. While we conceive of AT as an integral part of rehabilitation and hence not an independent aspect of care, the scoping review literature largely segregated AT from rehabilitation, which is reflected in the presentation of our findings. Furthermore, because conditions that would benefit from rehabilitation often require caregiving, and because women worldwide experience disproportionate expectations and adverse health effects related to providing care [
18], we explored the gender dimensions of caregiving as they intersect with rehabilitation.
Discussion
Our scoping review highlighted sex and/or gender inequities in rehabilitation participation and outcomes; AT access, use, and user satisfaction; and caregiving. It also highlighted gaps and limitations in existing research, such as a relative overemphasis on a gender disparity in cardiac rehabilitation participation and outcomes in HICs; a limited understanding of how sex and gender shape rehabilitation participation and outcomes among children and adolescents and among sexual and gender minorities; the frequent misrepresentation of sex and gender and the treatment of sex and gender as binary; and limited research on the gender dimensions of post-rehabilitation caregiving or on sex, gender, and assistive technology. Our scoping review also revealed the need for further research on social norms, roles, and structures that influence a gender disparity in rehabilitation participation and outcomes, including how gender power relations shape the allocation of household resources, the division of household labor, and provider gender, referral patterns, and clinical interactions with patients in different contexts, just to name a few. For example, while researchers have described women’s caregiving and domestic responsibilities as a barrier to their participation in rehabilitation, the underlying gender power relations in different contexts that shape the division of household labor and influence gendered social expectations surrounding who engages in domestic and caregiving tasks are less explored in the context of rehabilitation. Furthermore, while researchers have identified lower referral rates to cardiac rehabilitation among women, provider presumptions and implicit biases concerning the desire and ability of different groups of women to attend cardiac rehabilitation, which shape referral patterns, are less known. Also related to gender power relations in clinical settings, patient preferences regarding the gender of their rehabilitation provider and the extent to which they shape rehabilitation attendance and experiences are unknown.
Our review found that the existing literature on sex and/or gender and rehabilitation does not correspond with geographic or condition-based global rehabilitation needs. For example, much of the literature that we reviewed focused on a sex and gender disparity in access to and use of cardiac rehabilitation in HICs, which does not correspond with women’s global condition-based rehabilitation needs. To illustrate, while the most prevalent conditions globally that would benefit from rehabilitation are musculoskeletal disorders (1.71 billion people), with men and women having a similar prevalence rate [
1], only three articles in the scoping review focused on the relationship between sex, gender, and rehabilitation for musculoskeletal conditions. Conversely, nearly half of the articles (29/65) focused on the relationship between sex, gender and rehabilitation for cardiac conditions, for which far fewer men and women globally (37 million) would benefit from rehabilitation [
1]. Furthermore, while the Western Pacific has the highest need for rehabilitation services, and the need for rehabilitation is a global one [
1], existing literature on gender and rehabilitation is overwhelmingly based in North America and Europe.
Where geographic variation existed in the scoping review, there were often different or conflicting findings related to gender and rehabilitation participation and outcomes between HICs and LMICs. For example, HIC-based studies described women’s domestic and caregiving responsibilities as a barrier to their cardiac rehabilitation participation [
25,
26,
45,
59‐
65,
67‐
70,
79], while an Indonesia-based study described women’s domestic and caregiving roles as a facilitator to their participation [
29]. Additionally, while women and girls tended to use AT more than men in HICs [
44,
86,
87], the opposite was true in LMICs [
31‐
34]. The limited geographic and topical focus of literature on gender and rehabilitation and inconsistencies in the literature between LMICs and HICs point to a large gap in existing knowledge and the problems inherent in applying research findings from HICs to interventions in LMICs.
A common issue in existing research on rehabilitation is that it has often conflated or inadequately represented gender and sex [
23,
81], which has led to confusion about how sex and gender interact with each other and with other social and structural factors to shape health and wellbeing, and has resulted in less rigorous, accurate, and valid scientific findings [
11]. The conflation and misrepresentation of sex and gender additionally contributes to false understandings of sex and gender as binary, which both obscures the health experiences of transgender, gender nonbinary, and intersex individuals, and often leads to the erroneous conclusion that health disparities between men, women, and other genders are biological when the link is social or some combination of biological and social [
90]. Furthermore, the literature—particularly on caregiving—tended to be heteronormative, which obfuscated the experiences of non-spousal caregivers as well as the care needs and experiences of lesbian, gay, transgender, queer (or questioning), intersex, two-spirit, plus (LGBTQIA2S+) individuals.
To provide an example from the scoping review of how the treatment of sex and gender as interchangeable can contribute to a misunderstanding of health disparities as solely biologically rooted, an Italian study on sex disparities in post-stroke rehabilitation outcomes reported significantly better functional recovery among men, which they suggested may be due in part to
sex differences (authors' term) like men’s greater muscular strength and older women’s reduced physical activity [
50]. Challenging the notion that men’s greater muscular strength and women’s reduced physical activity are biological sex-based factors, the biologist and feminist theorist Ann Fausto-Sterling [
91] has importantly demonstrated that boys and girls are socialized to engage in different physical activities from a young age, which, together with biological factors, shapes their physical strength and activity as adults. Researchers’ attribution of women’s worse rehabilitation outcomes to biology obscures how their gendered socialization has also shaped their health and care. It also obscures the role of care—who receives it and who provides it—and its relationship with rehabilitation outcomes.
Rehabilitation researchers can address the problematic conflation and misrepresentation of sex and gender by undertaking sex- and gender-based analyses (SGBAs) [
81], a procedure which has been operationalized into the Sex and Gender Equity in Research (SAGER) guidelines [
22]. While sex and gender mutually affect and shape health and wellbeing, it is not always possible to disentangle the two and may be more appropriate at times to refer to sex/gender [
9,
23], which reflects how “living bodies are dynamic systems that develop and change in response to their social and historical contexts” [
9]. However, whenever authors rely on the term sex/gender, they should be clear about the dimensions of sex and gender that are difficult to disentangle rather than risk conflating the two as interchangeable. Furthermore, SGBAs should be combined with an intersectional approach, which acknowledges the compounding effects of various social and structural factors on health behaviors, opportunities, and outcomes [
24].
The concept of embodiment—which refers to the relationship between bodily processes and social structures [
6], including how gender as a multidimensional structure shapes health and illness [
4]— enables a better understanding of how biological and social factors interact to shape health and wellbeing. However, the predominance of categorical thinking—or the frequent breakdown of complex social identities and dynamics into categorical quantitative variables—has limited an ability among researchers to conceptualize and measure gender as a multidimensional structure. Categorical thinking can be helpful in breaking down how social categories interact with each other to shape health disparities, but it is limited in its ability to understand the social dynamics at play that create disparate health outcomes between different groups [
4]. Like Connell [
4], we acknowledge the important role of categorical thinking as a “first approximation in understanding gender” and echo longstanding calls among sociologists and anthropologists to focus much more on how gender and other social and structural inequalities and dynamics become embodied [
4,
6,
92].
This scoping review revealed that the incorporation of social science perspectives and methodologies can greatly increase our understanding of how the complex and multidimensional sociocultural construct of gender influences people’s rehabilitation experiences and outcomes within health systems. For example, a Norwegian study relied on qualitative interviews with ten men to explore men’s gendered expressions of pain, which adhered to dominant norms of masculinity and men’s desire to express suffering and vulnerability [
46]. The researchers suggested that a sensitivity among health care providers to the role of gender in men’s expressions of chronic pain can improve their experiences in pain rehabilitation. Another Swedish study relied on qualitative interviews with five men and five women to explore access to pain rehabilitation from an intersectional gender perspective, which revealed how people’s negotiations with the healthcare system, based on various social factors and identities, including gender and class, may have shaped physician assessments of their need for pain rehabilitation [
28]. This type of social science research is important, albeit limited, in clinical rehabilitation research and interventions, and could influence more careful, gender-responsive clinical studies and interventions among larger populations and in different sociocultural settings with diverse constructions of gender.
Intersectional social science approaches can inform person-centered, gender-responsive care and services that are sensitive to the complex social norms, roles, and structures that intersect to shape gender-inequitable rehabilitation participation and outcomes in diverse contexts. Person-centered care, sometimes referred to as “patient-centered” or “client-centered” care [
93], seeks to attend to the individual needs, preferences, and circumstances of the person receiving care [
94]. However, there is considerable variation in opinion on how to understand and address those needs, preferences, and circumstances, and hence translate person-centered care into practice [
94]. Intersectionality is a theoretical framework that examines how social identities—for instance, race, gender, ethnicity, disability, sexual orientation, and socioeconomic status—impact the individual’s experience, reflecting larger, compounding socio-structural systems [
95]. This scoping review advocates for person-centered care to be gender-responsive and highlights intersectionality’s close attention to the patient’s unique situation, which may enable providers to more accurately and better deliver rehabilitative care. It is important that as rehabilitation providers implement an intersectional and gender-responsive approach to care, they are constantly and consistently self-reflective about how their own implicit biases may be influencing their provision of rehabilitative care and that they are person-centered in their determination of treatment regimens for individual patients.
Conclusions
There is a significant gap in the current body of literature that limits our understanding of how sex and gender shape rehabilitation. While researchers have documented a sex and/or gender disparity in access to and use of particular types of rehabilitation, there is limited knowledge about how sex and gender interact with each other and with other social norms, roles, and structures to shape rehabilitation access, use, adherence, and outcomes, particularly in LMIC contexts and for noncardiac conditions. Researchers should seek to alleviate this gap in knowledge, while health systems can begin to respond to sex and gender gaps in rehabilitation participation and outcomes by implementing interventions that have shown promise in reducing these disparities and by prioritizing care that is person-centered and gender-responsive. Within health systems, systematic referral, home-based, hybrid, and women-only rehabilitation programs, and caregiving interventions have all shown some promise in alleviating sex and gender disparities in rehabilitation participation, outcomes, and caregiving burden. Person-centered, gender-responsive care involves delivering services that are responsive to the complex social norms, roles, and structures that intersect to shape gender inequitable rehabilitation participation and outcomes among individuals in diverse contexts. Social science and intersectional approaches will be essential to understanding how sex and/or gender interact with other social and structural factors, such as disability, to shape rehabilitation participation and outcomes and to informing better health systems interventions in response to these sex and gender gaps.
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