Background
Emergency departments (EDs) in most Western countries face an increase in presentations by older persons with complex health care needs, e.g., multimorbid patients and those with unmet psychosocial needs in combination with somatic complaints [
1,
2]. EDs are distinctive care and research settings at the interface of ambulatory and inpatient health care. Time-sensitive patient presentations and high staff workload render EDs a challenging environment for clinicians [
3] and patients alike [
4]. Serious health problems or accidents might pose critical life events for patients with potentially considerable implications for their psychological and physical well-being during hospitalization and after discharge [
5‐
7]. Currently, most health care services with their ‘silo’ structures are not designed for the delivery of comprehensive care which considers all of the patients’ needs in one setting [
8‐
10]. Although initiatives at addressing a variety of patients’ health and psychosocial needs in the health care setting exist (e.g. [
11]), crowded ED environments and lack of respective clinician training in identifying and handling patients with complex needs further impedes adequate responses [
12].
Diminished self-reported health was found to be a predictor of higher mortality risk, even after adjusting for objective disease markers [
13,
14]. To date, research on patients’ subjective well-being in the ED setting mainly focused on screening for comorbid psychological distress in patients presenting with somatic symptoms [
5] or patients’ affective states during their ED stay [
15]. These studies identified sociodemographic factors and social determinants, such as sex, marital status, age and education, as well as illness-related variables, such as triage category and comorbidities, as risk factors for psychological distress in ED patients [
5]. Self-reported health was closely linked to psychological distress [
5,
16]. More tapered research investigated self-reported health in the ED setting as one of multiple outcomes in diverse samples of ED populations (e.g. [
11,
17‐
19]. However, studies analyzing concomitant associations of ED patients’ sociodemographic, disease-specific and care-related variables with self-reported health as a primary outcome are lacking. The rationale for inquiring self-reported health lies, inter alia, in its predictive value for patient mortality and its potential use for early identification of especially vulnerable patients in clinical settings [
14].
Furthermore, life satisfaction has emerged as a potentially important predictor of mortality and morbidity, although research results on respective associations were mixed [
20,
20]. However, studies on patients’ life satisfaction scores in the ED setting are missing. Generally, individuals’ health and life satisfaction were positively associated suggesting that higher well-being comes with better health and vice versa [
20,
21]. Furthermore, higher life satisfaction was associated with fewer chronic health conditions and lower mortality rates, although the latter association was significantly alleviated by participants’ health status [
22,
23]. Life satisfaction is a distinct dimension of psychological well-being [
23,
24] and represents an individual’s cognitive assessment of overall satisfaction with different life aspects [
25]. In case of global life satisfaction scales, research showed that people tend to evaluate life components that are important to them and are rather stable over time, e.g., one’s own status concerning work, relationships, or health [
26]. However, life satisfaction is also determined by factors like genetic predisposition, personality traits, occurrence of specific life events, cultural background [
26], as well as sociodemographic variables and social determinants, i.e., sex, age, educational level, marital status, net personal income and work-related factors [
27,
28].
The study’s first aim was to characterize the self-reported health and life satisfaction during a distinct event, an ED visit, in a sample of mostly older patients from three different disease groups in a multi-center study located in Germany. In its second aim, this study further analyzed associations between sociodemographic as well as disease-specific and care-related factors with self-reported health and life satisfaction in ED patients considering the multidimensionality of both outcomes.
Discussion
This analysis of patient-reported outcomes from a cross-sectional data set of the multi-center study EMANET of ED patients in Germany’s capital Berlin indicated that self-reported health and life satisfaction in mostly older ED patients were associated with several sociodemographic and disease-related variables. Specifically, care dependency and unemployment significantly affected both diminished self-rated health and life satisfaction in ED patients. The following discussion incorporates separate reflections of concomitant factors of self-reported health and life satisfaction in ED patients by consulting prior research and nationally representative scores of both outcomes in the German general population.
Self-reported health in ED patients
Self-reported health in our sample (mean: 50.1) was considerably lower compared to representative samples of German adults in general (mean: 77.3) and for specific age groups (means ranged from 85.3 for participants between 18 and 24 years and 60.5 for participants of 75 years and older) [
38]. Rather low to medium ratings of patients’ health in the ED setting might be explained by at least two approaches: an acute deterioration in a patient’s health status leading to ED presentation or a long-term decline in self-perceived health leading to increased vulnerability. The former approach indicates that respective patients actually experience a significant measurable deterioration in their health status leading to presentation to an acute care facility. Our findings of poor self-reported health are in line with past research in different ED populations where health was measured with comparable instruments [
17,
18]. Self-reported measures of health might thus constitute snapshots of actual health states with high sensitivity to changes in self-perceived health and potentially high variability of this measure over time. An ED visit would thus indicate a serious health event with immediate impact on patients’ subjective well-being [
15]. Low to medium ratings of self-reported health in our sample on the other hand, lead to the assumption that our elderly multimorbid population already belonged to a high-risk population for adverse health outcomes and consistent diminished self-perceived health. Thus, specific acute and health-related events might not be the sole explanation for a drop in an otherwise good health of respective patients. Our finding that variables referring to the ED visit in question, like triage score and transportation to the ED, were not significantly associated with self-reported health in multivariable analysis might support this conjecture. Due to the cross-sectional nature of our study, these assumptions about temporal trajectories require consideration in future research where self-reported health is measured longitudinally, e.g., before, during and after an ED visit.
Life satisfaction in ED patients
Life satisfaction in our study population (mean: 7.15, SD: 2.50) was comparable to research in representative samples of German adults in general (mean: 7.18, SD: 2.07) and for specific age groups (means ranged from 7.21 for participants between 18 and 35 years and 7.25 for participants of 65 years and older) [
32]. Individual reactions to life events and certain circumstances were further found to be influenced by a person’s previous experiences, values and expectations [
26]. Since life satisfaction in our sample of ED patients was comparable to ratings in representative population samples [
26], our study results might indicate that life satisfaction indeed represents a rather stable construct, which is not highly affected by the current situation or mood of an individual. Satisfaction with one’s health is only one factor that individuals take into account when evaluating their general satisfaction with life [
26]. In older multimorbid populations, research found that adaptation processes and/or coping methods are applied to handle chronic health conditions and accompanying functional limitations, thus altering the perception of personal restrictions and disease severity [
26]. However, patients in poor health states might also “downplay the importance of their health when evaluating their global life satisfaction” ( [
27] , p. 287) or feel obliged to positively evaluate their well-being in order to please close others [
32]. Further research is needed to ascertain trajectories in this outcome concerning susceptibility to serious acute health events.
Associated factors of self-reported health and life satisfaction
In a recent scoping review, predictors of self-reported health in older community-dwelling adults were found to be different sociodemographic factors, physical and mental health, health-related behavior and emotional factors [
39]. Our research adds to existing studies by identifying sociodemographic, disease-specific and care-related factors associated with self-reported health specifically in the ED setting. Patients with higher life satisfaction showed better self-reported health consistent with previous research [
22,
39]. Furthermore, negative associations between care dependency, unemployment, hospital stays in the previous 6 months and self-reported health supported previous findings [
39]. Our results might indicate that underlying health problems in our sample of ED patients and accompanying limitations in functional abilities were highly correlated with our measures of care dependency and occupational status and were thus significantly associated with self-rated health. However, we found that patients with cardiac symptoms (i.e., EMASPOT study participants) reported significantly better health and life satisfaction than patients with respiratory symptoms (i.e., EMACROSS study participants) and those with proximal femoral fractures (i.e., EMAAge participants), even after controlling for sociodemographic factors. Thus, patients from distinct disease groups – according to the findings of this study – seem to differ in adaption processes and the perception or standards of ‘good’ health [
7]. Perceived severity of symptoms leading to an ED consultation may also influence the rating of patient’s health status. Probably the impact of certain (chronic) medical conditions on functional limitations or other restraints in daily activities is visible in our results of self-rated health. ED patients with hip fractures who reported a diminished health status belong to a highly multimorbid geriatric group with multiple physical limitations and diminished health [
40]. Similarly, patients with respiratory complaints were found to report a high burden of disease and severity of symptoms [
39], thus rendering patients with cardiac symptoms the least susceptible to perceptions of poor health compared to ED patients with respiratory symptoms and those with hip fractures. Furthermore, age was not significantly associated with self-reported health, which is in line with an overall inconsistent state of research on this association [
39]. Female sex was associated with better self-reported health in our sample which is in contrast with past research reporting significantly lower self-reported health in women than in men irrespective of age [
41]. However, a recent review found that the evidence on this association in older adults is inconsistent [
42]. Frequent ED users were more likely to report fair or poor health status than other ED users [
43]. However, we did not find significant associations between ED use in the previous 6 months and self-rated health.
Finally, we ran multilevel analyses to adjust for potential effects on outcomes from differences regarding structural factors and the patient case-mix at our eight study sites. Results revealed only minimal importance of the adjustment of the respective study ED for the explanation of variance in self-reported health (between 2.9 and 4.4%) and specifically life satisfaction (between 0.4 and 0.6%). However, interestingly, excluding EMAAge participants and younger participants in sensitivity analyses was associated with a higher percentage of variance explained on the ED level for self-reported health, which might indicate slightly different age and case-mix distributions in ED populations between study sites.
Implications
In previous research, self-reported health and life satisfaction were not only associated with mortality but also with favorable emotional factors and positive health-related behaviors, e.g., increased positive affect or physical activity, respectively [
20,
39,
44]. If ED visits pose a serious health event, especially for older patients, additional interventions to strengthen subsequent use of beneficial health-related strategies and positive self-perceptions of ageing should be applied since both factors influence future health and life satisfaction in the elderly [
6]. The discussion on the clinical use of measures of self-reported health and life satisfaction is pending. However, being able to identify especially vulnerable patients in the ED setting, e.g., by systematically enquiring PROs during patient’s ED stay or trustful patient-clinician interactions, might facilitate patient-centered care and prevent negative health outcomes. Thus, surveying information on PROs could be used to monitor patient progress in the individual patient-clinician interaction in the case of subsequent ED presentations [
45]. The consideration of PROs and the psychosocial and emotional needs of patients at the onset and during an ED stay may increase health and well-being outcomes in vulnerable patient groups. Innovative approaches to cater to the psychosocial needs of patients in clinical environments are in demand. In order to improve patient experience in the ED, the use of additional personnel might be promising in addressing the social and personal needs of older ED patients who are at risk of adverse outcomes. This may include offering support for unaccompanied patients or to those with hearing, visual or cognitive impairments [
11] or offering interdisciplinary support for patients with social needs [
46].
Limitations
Despite the usage of data from a multi-center study with a large sample size, our study is subject to different limitations. Due to the cross-sectional nature of this study, previous levels of self-reported health and life satisfaction in patients before the ED stay were unknown. Thus, any changes to baseline levels in both outcomes were not ascertained. Furthermore, we did not study the impact of other potentially relevant aspects, as they were outside the scope of the research network EMANet. Factors that might explain further variation in subjective well-being and health include coping abilities [
26], use of health-related strategies [
6], exposure to traumatic events [
19] or further health determinants such as health literacy [
27]. Our study was set in a high-income country which limits generalizability to other countries with less favorable conditions regarding household income or access to health services [
27]. Biases, due to social desirability in the interview situation, might have positively skewed patient reports of health status and life satisfaction [
47]. Furthermore, patients’ ability to remember and correctly report information, e.g., on the previous use of the healthcare system, might have been influenced by their acute and threatening health situation in the ED or by being surveyed after the ED stay, which applied to patients with proximal femoral fractures (i.e., EMAAge participants). However, we examined the potential latter bias by conducting sensitivity analyses excluding EMAAge participants in scenario B which did not show evidence for respective distortions. Finally, multilevel regression analysis models only explained a moderate amount of variance in our outcomes between 15% (life satisfaction) and 19% (self-reported health), which indicates that future research should account for further relevant variables. Furthermore, our multilevel analytic approach revealed minimal importance of the respective study ED for the explanation of variance in outcomes (between 0.6 and 2.9%).
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the participating hospitals in the EMANet research network, namely Charité – Universitätsmedizin Berlin (Campus Charité Mitte and Campus Virchow-Klinikum), St. Hedwig Hospital (Alexianer Berlin St. Hedwig-Krankenhaus), Elisabeth Hospital (Evangelische Elisabeth Klinik der Paul-Gerhardt Diakonie), Franziskus Hospital (Franziskus-Krankenhaus Berlin), German Armed Forces Hospital Berlin (Bundeswehr Krankenhaus Berlin), German Red Cross Hospital Berlin-Mitte (DRK Kliniken Berlin-Mitte), and Jewish Hospital (Jüdisches Krankenhaus Berlin). The authors would like to thank all study participants as well as all EMANet researchers and study personnel responsible for study planning, patient recruitment, and data management.
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