Background
Adolescent smoking prevention
Smoking beliefs
Positive individual beliefs
Positive social beliefs
Negative individual beliefs
Negative social beliefs
Gender equality and health behavior
Knowledge gap
Hypothesis
Positive | Negative | |
---|---|---|
Individual | Feeling relaxed (G) Losing weight (G) | Health risks (G) Physical appearance (G) Physical activity (B) |
Social | Social influence (G) Social status/popularity (B&G) Attractiveness (B&G) | Friends’ influence (G) Getting into trouble (G) |
Methods
Measurement
Statistical analysis
Gender | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Girls | Boys | chisq | |||
% of mean | N | % of mean | N | ||
Subjective socioeconomic status (mean, /10) | 6.7 | 6293 | 6.8 | 6141 | 39.0** |
Age (mean) | 14.9 | 6517 | 15.08 | 6452 | 79.3** |
Migration status (%) | 0.4 | ||||
Born in another country | 8.4 | 546 | 8.7 | 561 | |
Born in this country | 91.6 | 5974 | 91.3 | 5898 | |
Country (%) | 34.4** | ||||
Belgium | 14.7 | 960 | 15.1 | 977 | |
Ireland | 16.8 | 1097 | 15.8 | 1018 | |
Finland | 12.9 | 838 | 13.9 | 897 | |
Germany | 11.5 | 748 | 11.6 | 749 | |
Italy | 16.7 | 1090 | 13.6 | 880 | |
The Netherlands | 13.5 | 877 | 15.2 | 984 | |
Portugal | 14 | 910 | 14.8 | 954 | |
Educational level of mother (%) | 40.5** | ||||
Low | 14.4 | 940 | 13.5 | 871 | |
Medium | 32.4 | 2112 | 30.9 | 1993 | |
High | 39.2 | 2556 | 37.9 | 2449 | |
Other | 0.2 | 14 | 0.1 | 7 | |
Unknown | 12.6 | 822 | 15.9 | 1024 | |
Missing | 1.2 | 76 | 1.8 | 115 | |
Educational level of father (%) | 4.8 | ||||
Low | 17.9 | 1169 | 17.4 | 1123 | |
Medium | 28.3 | 1847 | 28.7 | 1856 | |
High | 35.1 | 2286 | 34.4 | 2223 | |
Other | 0.1 | 7 | 0.1 | 9 | |
Unknown | 17.1 | 1116 | 17.5 | 1128 | |
Missing | 1.5 | 95 | 1.9 | 120 | |
Parental smoking (%) | 11.5** | ||||
No parental smoking | 84.7 | 5519 | 86.7 | 5602 | |
At least one parent smoker | 15.4 | 1001 | 13.3 | 857 | |
Weekly smoking of students (%) | 0.1 | ||||
Not weekly smoker | 88.6 | 5778 | 88.8 | 5737 | |
Weekly smoker | 11.4 | 742 | 11.2 | 722 |
BOYS | GIRLS | ALL | ANOVA gender (F) | Chisq for country | |||||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bel1 | Ire | Fin | Ger | Ita | NL | Po | ALL | Bel | Ire | Fin | Ger | Ita | NL | Po | ALL | ||||
Positive individual beliefs | |||||||||||||||||||
Feeling relaxed | 49 | 49 | 28 | 37 | 47 | 50 | 43 | 44 | 49 | 44 | 25 | 36 | 56 | 50 | 39 | 43 | 44 | 0.1 | 60.6* |
Losing weight | 22 | 30 | 10 | 15 | 13 | 12 | 22 | 18 | 20 | 33 | 10 | 22 | 16 | 15 | 27 | 21 | 20 | 10.7* | 67.6* |
Positive social beliefs | |||||||||||||||||||
Looking cool | 13 | 18 | 7 | 7 | 19 | 14 | 13 | 13 | 11 | 15 | 7 | 8 | 18 | 14 | 10 | 12 | 13 | 1.3 | 31.1* |
Looking grown-up | 10 | 33 | 11 | 18 | 20 | 19 | 12 | 18 | 11 | 31 | 9 | 19 | 25 | 18 | 11 | 18 | 18 | 0.5 | 89.7* |
Looking masculine | 8 | 17 | 8 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 9 | 12 | 6 | 15 | 6 | 10 | 7 | 9 | 5 | 8 | 10 | 33.5* | 25.5* |
Looking feminine | 2 | 7 | 5 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 3 | 5 | 5 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 8 | 3 | 3 | 4 | 4 | 2.9 | 9.8* |
Getting a boy/girlfriend | 4 | 10 | 6 | 4 | 11 | 6 | 5 | 7 | 3 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 29.8* | 10.2* |
Becoming popular | 7 | 21 | 11 | 7 | 12 | 15 | 13 | 12 | 9 | 13 | 11 | 10 | 12 | 13 | 14 | 12 | 12 | 1.4 | 17.4* |
Appearing sexy | 4 | 9 | 3 | 3 | 13 | 5 | 7 | 7 | 4 | 10 | 4 | 3 | 14 | 7 | 6 | 7 | 7 | 2.3 | 39.7* |
Negative individual beliefs | |||||||||||||||||||
Getting facial wrinkles | 47 | 84 | 82 | 79 | 63 | 70 | 66 | 70 | 56 | 92 | 90 | 81 | 71 | 77 | 77 | 78 | 74 | 93.1* | 165.5* |
Having less ability to exercise | 90 | 90 | 88 | 87 | 74 | 82 | 85 | 85 | 90 | 93 | 94 | 83 | 76 | 81 | 86 | 86 | 86 | 1.7 | 53.7* |
Getting lung cancer | 94 | 97 | 95 | 94 | 92 | 92 | 95 | 94 | 95 | 98 | 98 | 96 | 93 | 93 | 97 | 96 | 95 | 18.3* | 14.8* |
Having trouble breathing | 92 | 93 | 91 | 95 | 88 | 91 | 91 | 91 | 93 | 97 | 96 | 95 | 92 | 92 | 95 | 94 | 93 | 37.8* | 7.7* |
Negative social beliefs | |||||||||||||||||||
Getting into trouble | 69 | 85 | 89 | 90 | 75 | 66 | 62 | 76 | 69 | 91 | 93 | 89 | 79 | 71 | 68 | 80 | 78 | 27.8* | 136.9* |
Most people reluctant to date | 49 | 65 | 75 | 64 | 49 | 67 | 31 | 57 | 52 | 66 | 77 | 61 | 41 | 64 | 28 | 55 | 56 | 4.6* | 191.7* |
Parents’ disapproval | 95 | 98 | 98 | 82 | 95 | 96 | 95 | 95 | 96 | 99 | 98 | 81 | 95 | 97 | 98 | 95 | 95 | 4.6* | 116.6* |
Most people would not hire a smoker to babysit | 71 | 82 | 88 | 87 | 78 | 81 | 64 | 79 | 72 | 87 | 88 | 88 | 73 | 82 | 63 | 78 | 78 | 0 | 91.4* |
Best friends’ disapproval | 57 | 63 | 50 | 52 | 37 | 46 | 59 | 53 | 69 | 79 | 67 | 58 | 49 | 68 | 73 | 67 | 60 | 265.1* | 64.6* |
Teachers’ disapproval | 38 | 90 | 86 | 68 | 62 | 56 | 60 | 66 | 41 | 96 | 76 | 63 | 61 | 61 | 64 | 67 | 66 | 0.8 | 288.1* |
BOYS | GIRLS | All | Group comparisons | |||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Weekly smokers | Not weekly smokers | all | Weekly smokers | Not weekly smokers | all | Weekly smokers | Not weekly smokers | all | ANOVA gender in weekly smokers (F) | ANOVA gender in not weekly smokers (F) | ANOVA smoking status (all, F) | |
Positive individual beliefs | ||||||||||||
Feeling relaxed | 86 | 38 | 44 | 88 | 38 | 43 | 87 | 38 | 44 | 2 | 1 | 1364.0* |
Losing weight | 27 | 17 | 18 | 26 | 20 | 21 | 26 | 19 | 20 | 1 | 14.3* | 47.9* |
Positive social beliefs | ||||||||||||
Looking cool | 17 | 13 | 13 | 14 | 12 | 12 | 16 | 12 | 13 | 2 | 0 | 11.9* |
Looking grown-up | 16 | 18 | 18 | 13 | 19 | 18 | 15 | 18 | 18 | 3 | 2 | 12.5* |
Looking masculine | 15 | 11 | 12 | 5 | 9 | 8 | 10 | 10 | 10 | 48.1* | 13.8* | 0 |
Looking feminine | 5 | 4 | 5 | 7 | 4 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 6.3* | 15.3* |
Getting a boy/girlfriend | 9 | 6 | 7 | 6 | 4 | 4 | 7 | 5 | 6 | 6.0* | 24.1* | 10.6* |
Becoming popular | 9 | 13 | 12 | 8 | 12 | 12 | 9 | 13 | 12 | 2 | 1 | 19.8* |
Appearing sexy | 14 | 6 | 7 | 12 | 7 | 7 | 13 | 6 | 7 | 1 | 4.9* | 103.2* |
Negative individual beliefs | ||||||||||||
Getting facial wrinkles | 48 | 73 | 70 | 59 | 80 | 78 | 54 | 76 | 74 | 15.2* | 81.8* | 346.8* |
Having less ability to exercise | 68 | 87 | 85 | 72 | 88 | 86 | 70 | 88 | 86 | 3 | 1 | 334.4* |
Getting lung cancer | 87 | 95 | 94 | 89 | 97 | 96 | 88 | 96 | 95 | 2 | 17.8* | 149.1* |
Having trouble breathing | 80 | 93 | 91 | 85 | 96 | 94 | 83 | 94 | 93 | 5.6* | 41.4* | 263.2* |
Negative social beliefs | ||||||||||||
Getting into trouble | 47 | 80 | 76 | 53 | 83 | 80 | 50 | 81 | 78 | 5.4* | 24.8* | 764.9* |
Most people reluctant to date | 42 | 59 | 57 | 44 | 57 | 55 | 43 | 58 | 56 | 1 | 6.8* | 115.7* |
Parents’ disapproval | 85 | 96 | 95 | 88 | 96 | 95 | 86 | 96 | 95 | 3 | 2 | 266.4* |
Most people would not hire a smoker to babysit | 64 | 80 | 79 | 63 | 81 | 78 | 64 | 80 | 78 | 1 | 0 | 218.8* |
Best friends’ disapproval | 20 | 57 | 53 | 25 | 72 | 67 | 22 | 64 | 60 | 6.1* | 288.6* | 1004.9* |
Teachers’ disapproval | 46 | 68 | 66 | 52 | 69 | 67 | 49 | 69 | 66 | 4.0* | 0 | 219.1* |
Gender effect in smoking beliefs (female versus male) | |||||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Positive individual | Negative individual | Positive social | Negative social | Gini INDEX | |||||||||
Beta | 95% IC | Beta | 95% IC | Beta | 95% IC | Beta | 95% IC | ||||||
All countries | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.05 | 0.04** | 0.03 | 0.05 | −0.11** | −0.15 | −0.07 | 0.04** | 0.03 | 0.05 | |
The Netherlands (low Gender Index of Inequality) | 0.04 | − 0.01 | 0.10 | 0.02 | −0.01 | 0.05 | − 0.08 | − 0.18 | 0.01 | 0.07** | 0.03 | 0.10 | 0.044 |
Finland | −0.08 | − 0.15 | − 0.01 | 0.06** | 0.03 | 0.10 | − 0.20** | − 0.32 | − 0.08 | 0.03 | − 0.01 | 0.06 | 0.056 |
Germany | 0.10 | 0.03 | 0.16 | 0.00 | −0.03 | 0.04 | 0.05 | −0.07 | 0.17 | 0.00 | −0.04 | 0.04 | 0.066 |
Belgium | −0.03 | −0.08 | 0.02 | 0.03 | 0.00 | 0.07 | −0.02 | −0.13 | 0.09 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.073 |
Italy | 0.19** | 0.14 | 0.24 | 0.05 | 0.02 | 0.08 | −0.08 | −0.17 | 0.00 | 0.01 | −0.03 | 0.04 | 0.085 |
Portugal | 0.00 | −0.05 | 0.05 | 0.05** | 0.02 | 0.08 | −0.20** | −0.31 | − 0.10 | 0.06 | 0.02 | 0.09 | 0.091 |
Ireland (high Gini) | −0.04 | −0.08 | 0.00 | 0.04 | 0.02 | 0.07 | −0.22** | −0.29 | − 0.15 | 0.07** | 0.04 | 0.10 | 0.127 |
Model -2LogL | −39,516 | −30,042 | −21,534 | −27,175 |