In Ethiopia, medicinal plants have continued to play vital role in fulfilling human and livestock healthcare needs of different communities. However, these valuable resources are being depleted mainly due to agricultural expansion and deforestation. Therefore, immediate action is required to conserve these resources and document the associated knowledge. The purpose of this study was, thus, to document and analyze information associated with medicinal plants that are used in managing public and animal health problems in Seharti Samre District, Southern Tigray, Ethiopia.
Methods
Ethnobotanical data were collected from July 1, 2011 to December 30, 201 mainly using semi-structured interviews with informants sampled using purposive sampling technique and through field observations.
Results
The study revealed the use of 90 medicinal plant species in Seharti Samre District for the treatment of several human and livestock diseases. The plants belonged to 46 families and 82 genera. The majority of the medicinal plants were indicated to be harvested from the wild. Leaf was the most frequently harvested plant part accounting for 44% of the reported plants, followed by roots (16%), whole plants (10%) and seeds (8%). The most widely used method of preparation was crushing (37%), pounding (15%) and chewing (13%). Most medicinal plants were applied internally (64.6%), followed by external application on the skin (35.4%). Febrile illness is the disease group in the study area that scored the highest ICF value (0.97), followed by cardio-vascular problems (0.97) and evil eye (0.95). Different preference ranking exercises were also used to determine the most preferred and potential medicinal plants in the study area.
Conclusion
In Seharti Samre District, medicinal plants are still playing important role in the management of various human and livestock diseases, many of which are harvested for their leaf parts. However, activities of claimed medicinal plants need to be evaluated before recommending them for their wider use. Evaluation priority should be given to medicinal plants with the highest informant agreement as such plants are believed to have better activity.
Hinweise
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors’ contributions
The three authors had significant intellectual contribution towards the design of the study, data collection and analysis and write-up of the manuscript. The authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Background
The problem of health in African countries, including Ethiopia, is very acute as people have no full access to government and private health services. The absence or inaccessibility of modern healthcare services and other factors such as high cost of modern drugs and services and better curing of herbal remedies against some chronic diseases has caused a large percentage of the population to rely on traditional medicine, and mostly on herbal remedies [1,2], for its primary health-care needs. In Africa, up to 80% of the population relys on traditional medicine to help meet its health care needs [3].
Ethiopia is a land of high variation in landscape, flora and fauna, multiplicity of ethnic groups with complex multicultural diversity, languages, cultures and beliefs which have in turn contributed to the high diversity of traditional knowledge and practices of the people including the use of medicinal plants. In Ethiopia, medicinal plants play important role in fulfilling human and livestock health care needs of different communities. Traditional use of medicinal plants has remained as the main alternative solution for different human and livestock health problems largely due to shortage of pharmaceutical products and modern health service stations, unaffordable prices of conventional drugs and drug resistance [4].
Anzeige
Today, many Ethiopian medicinal plants are facing extinction or severe genetic erosion mainly due to agricultural expansion, deforestation, over exploitation and destructive harvesting. Securidaca longipedenculata and Warburgia ugandensis are among the popular medicinal plants in Ethiopia that are being threatened due to over exploitation and destructive harvesting. Hagenia abysinica is another medicinal plant that is being depleted as a result of over exploitation [4]. For most of the threatened and endangered medicinal plants, no conservation action has been taken, and there is no even a complete inventory of these plants. Much of the knowledge on the uses of medicinal plants in the country is still held only by traditional societies and is usually transmitted verbally [5]. Unless the plants are conserved and the associated ethnomedicinal knowledge documented, there is a danger that both the valuable medicinal plants and the knowledge could vanish forever. As it is happening elsewhere in the country, medicinal plants of the Seharti Samre District of Tigray are facing the danger of being lost unless appropriate documentation and conservation measures are taken.
A number of ethnobotanical studies have previously been conducted in different parts of Tigray to document the use of medicinal plants [6-14]. For example, studies conducted by Teklay et al. [12], Abdurhman [9] and Zenebe et al. [13] reported the use of 114, 113 and 68 medicinal plants in Kilte Awlaelo, Ofla and Asgede Tsimbila districts, respectively. However, there is no record that indicates the documentation of medicinal plants used by the people of Seharti Samre District. The purpose of this study was, therefore, to document and analyze traditional knowledge of medicinal plants used to manage human and animal health problems in Seharti Samre District, Southern Tigray, Ethiopia.
Methods
Description of the study area
The study was conducted in Seharti Samre District (Woreda) located between 12030’ and 13002’ latitude north and 38059’ and 39026’ longitude east in south east of Tigray at about 57 km southwest of Mekelle, the capital city of Tigray Region and 820 km north of Addis Ababa (Figure 1). The District has undulated type of landscape with altitude ranging from 1470 to 2370 meter above sea level (m.a.s.l) (Seharti Samre District Rural Agricultural Office, unpublished data of 2011). The District has warm and hot climate conditions and unimodal rainfall distribution that extends from April to September with the highest peak in July and August.
Figure 1
Map of the study area (data source: Ethio GIS).
×
The great majority of inhabitants in the District belong to Tigray ethnic group. According to unpublished report of 2011 obtained from Seharti Samre District Health Office, the public healthcare coverage of the District reaches 85%. However, there are people who still rely on traditional medicine due to low cost of the service and more preference to the system. A study by Yirga [8] reported the use of 27 medicinal plants in the neighbouring District of Enderta. In the District, there are five health centres and eighteen health posts. Pneumonia, skin diseases, malaria, intestinal parasites infection and diarrhoea, acute respiratory tract infection, gastritis, urinary tract infection, diarrhoea, snake bites and conjunctivitis are the top ten human health problems in the District (Seharti Samre District Health Office, unpublished report, 2011). Anthrax, black-leg, trypanosomiasis, bloat, gland swelling, cough and intestinal diseases are the major livestock diseases in the District (Seharti District Samre Veterinary Health Office, unpublished report, 2011).
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Selection of study sites
The study was conducted in Seharti Samre District from July 1, 2011 to December 30, 2012. Prior to conducting this study, proposal approval letter was received from Jimma University Ethical Review Committee (ERC) and verbal informed consent from each informant who participated in the study.
Sampling of informants
Purposive sampling method was employed to select 66 traditional healers and knowledgeable individuals (55 men and 11 women) between the ages of 20 and 76 years for semi-structured interviews. Informants that were involved in preference/priority and direct matrix rankings were selected randomly from those healers and knowledgeable individuals that were already sampled for the interviews.
Collection of data and plant specimens
Semi-structured interviews and field observation [15,16] were employed to collect ethnobotanical data. Individual interviews were held with informants to gather data on medicinal plants with regards to plants parts used, methods of preparation, dosage, route of administration, diseases treated, threats, conservation status, cultivation practice, marketability, acquisition/transfer of indigenous knowledge and attitudes of people towards using such plants. All communications with informants were held in Tigrigna, the official language of Tigray Region. Specimens of medicinal plans were collected, dried and identified with the help of botanists at Aklilu Lemma Institute of Pathobiology and the National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University (AAU) and were deposited at the Jimma University Herbarium.
Data analysis and presentation
Microsoft Excel spreadsheet software was employed for organizing and analysis of ethnobotanical data. Descriptive statistical analysis was employed to determine the number of medicinal plants used and ailments treated in the study District, the most frequently used plant parts, main routes of remedy administration and to identify popular medicinal plants, main ways of knowledge acquisition/transfer, major habitats of the plants and their marketability.
Informant consensus factor (ICF) was calculated for each ailment group to estimate level of agreement among informants in the selection of plants against a given category. ICF was calculated using the formula \( \mathrm{I}\mathrm{C}\mathrm{F}=\frac{nur- nt}{nur-1} \) [17] where ICF stands for informant consensus factor, nur for number of use citations in each category and nt for number of species used.
Preference ranking technique [18] was used to identify the most preferred medicinal plants used in the District to treat snake bite based on informants’ personal preference or perception. Snake bite is one of the ten most important human health problems in the District. It is also among the ten diseases with the highest ICF values. The most preferred plant was assigned the highest score (6), while the least effective one was given the lowest value (1). For this purpose, eight individuals were randomly selected from the people that had already served as key informants. Each informant was provided with fresh specimens of six medicinal plants having the highest frequency of report by informants for being used to treat snake bite. The informants were then asked to rank the plants according to their degree of preference.
Priority ranking exercise [18] was also performed by seven informants to rank different factors perceived as threats to medicinal plants in the study area based on level of destructive impacts. During exercises, informants assigned values 1–4, 1 for the least destructive threat and 4 for the most destructive one.
Direct matrix ranking [16,18] was performed for six commonly reported multipurpose medicinal plants. Based on the relative benefits obtained from each plant, a group of five informants were asked to discuss and assign, to each attribute, a value between 1 and 4 (1 for the lowest value and 4 for the highest value). Scores were then added and plants ranked.
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Results
Acquisition/transfer of medicinal plants knowledge
Majority (65.6%) of informants reported that transfer of knowledge on medicinal plants in the study District took place along the family line, from parents to children. Some informants (21.2%) reported close relatives as sources of knowledge while other informants (9.1%) indicated transfer of the knowledge on payment (9.1%) and few reported acquisition of knowledge through trial and error methods (6.1%). Results of interviews also revealed that 69.7% of the informants were willing to transfer their knowledge of medicinal plants along the family line verbally and 9.1% reported that they were happy to transfer the knowledge verbally assisted by practical demonstration. Other informants (21.2) reported that they had no interest to transfer their knowledge at all.
Comparison of medicinal plant knowledge between age groups
Analysis was made to compare medicinal plant knowledge among two age groups Result revealed that members belonging to the age group above 40 year reported an average of 2 medicinal plants while those belonging to the age group between 20 and 40 years reported an average of less one medicinal plant. During interviews and field visits, informants above 40 years of age were found to be very conversant on how to collect plants, process remedies and administer them. Besides, older informants had stronger belief in the curative effect of their medicinal plants as compared to the younger generation.
Medicinal plants reported and diseases treated
Ninety medicinal plant species that were used for the treatment of 51 human (Table 1) and 25 animal diseases (Table 2) were reported by the informants in Seharti Samre District. Of the total medicinal plants, 62 were used to treat human diseases only, 25 to treat both human and animal diseases and three to mange animal diseases only. The medicinal plants belonged to 46 families and 82 genera. The family Solanaceae was represented by 9 species, Lamiaceae by 8 species, Fabaceae by 6 species, Asteraceae and Euphorbiaceae by 5 species each, Malvaceae by 4 species, Boraginaceae and Capparidaceae by 3 species each. The families Rutaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Apocynaceae, Brassicaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Oleaceae, Rhamnaceae and Vitaceae contributed 2 species each and the remaining 28 families were represented by one species each. Most of the recorded medicinal plants were shrubs and herbs accounting for 42.2% and 39%, respectively, followed by trees (14.4%) and climbers (4.4%).
Table 1
List of medicinal plants used to treat human diseases
Scientific name
Family
Local name
Habit
Parts used
Disease treated
Mode of preparation and administration
Application route
Voucher no
Achyranthes aspera L.
Amaranthaceae
mechelo
Herb
Root
Arthritis
Roots chopped into pieces; seven pieces are put on clean thread and tied on the waist until recovered from the disease
Dermal
SA01303
Leaf
Herpes zoster
Leaves roasted on metal plate, pounded into powder , mixed with pure butter and smeared on affected part
Dermal
Acokanthera schimperi (A.DC.) Schweinf.
Apocynaceae
Mebtie (merez)
Tree
Leaf
Jaundice
Leaves are boiled in water for an hour and the patient takes a cup of the solution per day for seven days
oral
SA01333
Wound
Leaves are crushed and paste smeared on affected part
Dermal
Allium sativum L.
Alliaceae
Tsa’da shegurti
Herb
Bulb
Gastritis
Bulb is eaten with flatbread locally known as ‘enjera’
oral
SA01368
Evil eye
Smelling aroma of bulb
Nasal
Wound
Bulbs are crushed, squeezed and wound washed with the liquid until healed
Dermal
Ring worm
Rubbing affected area with bulb
dermal
Malaria
Bulb of Allium sativum, Artemisia afra, Ruta chalepensis and Lepidium sativum are crushed together and paste taken for five-seven days
oral
Aloe megalacantha Baker
Alloaceae
Ere
Shrub
Exudate
Malaria
Exudate, mixed with honey, is taken orally with coffee cup for three days
oral
SA01384
Diabetes
Coffee cup of exudate taken every morning for long period of time
oral
Impotence
Smearing penis with exudate
Dermal
Dandruff
Exudate smeared on head skin for a week
Dermal
wound
Exudates smeared on wound
Alysicarpus ferrugineus Hochst. & Steud. ex A. Rich.
Fabaceae
Hambo hambo bita
Herb
Root
Jaundice
Root chewed for five days
oral
SA01336
Argemone mexicana L.
Papaveraceae
Medafe tilian
Herb
Leaf
wound
Fresh leaves are collected, crushed and paste applied on affected part
Dermal
SA01381
eczema
Argemone mexicana leaves crushed and powder sprayed on affected part. After two days, leaves of Dodonaea angustifolia roasted on iron sheet, pounded into powder are again sprayed on affected part
Dermal
Artemisia afra Jacq. ex willd.
Asteraceae
Chena baria
Herb
Leaf
Evil eye
Aroma of the leaves help in expelling evil eye
nasal
SA01309
Evil eye
Leaves of Artemisia afar and Ruta chalepensis and bulb of Allium sativum are crushed and aroma sniffed
nasal
Asparagus africanus Lam.
Asparagaceae
Kasta ansti
Shrub
Root
impotence
Roots are pounded into powder, mixed with meat soup and vegetable and taken every evening for a month
oral
SA01340
Evil eye
Root of Carissa spinarum and leaves of Ruta Chalepensis, Artemisia afra, Cucumis ficifolius and Asparagus africanus are crushed and fumigated indoor
nasal
Boscia salicifolia Oliv.
Capparidaceae
Shesha
Shrub
Leaf
Ear infection
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and liquid filtered with clean cotton and three drops are applied on infected ear
ear
SA01329
Cadaba rotundifolia Forssk.
Capparidaceae
Mora
Shrub
Leaf
toothache
Chew leaves and hold paste on affected tooth
oral
SA01328
Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait.
Asclepiadaceae
Ginda
Shrub
Flower
Kidney stone
Dry flower crushed into powder and mixed with dough of wheat and medicine prepared tablet form is baked on iron plate and three to four tablets are taken for long period of time
oral
SA01375
Latex
Haemorrhoids
Latex is smeared on affected area
Dermal
Wart
Cover the first appearing wart with latex
Dermal
Scabies
smear whole affected area with latex
Dermal
wound
Dress wound with latex
Dermal
Root
Tuberculosis
Roots of C. procera is crushed into powder and mixed with pounded bark of Croton macrostachyus and leaves of Ficus palmata and sniffed
nasal
Calpurnia aurea (Alt.) Benth.
Fabaceae
Hetsawets
Tree
Seed
Gonorrhoea, syphilis
Seeds are roasted on iron sheet, ground into powder, mixed with honey, prepared in the form of tablet and three tablets are taken every day for five days. As a side effect, it causes headache
oral
SA01345
Amoebiasis
Seeds are roasted on iron sheet, ground into powder, mixed with honey, dissolved in cup of water and taken for three days
oral
Capparis tomentosa Lam.
Capparidaceae
Andiel
Shrub
Root
Evil eye
Patient fumigates himself with smoke of burning root
SA01337
Carissa spinarum (Forssk.) Vahl.
Apocynaceae
Agam
Shrub
Root
Evil eye
Crushed root is fumigated on a clay plate to expel evil eye
Nasal
SA01316
Leaf
Febrile illness
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and liquid taken with coffee
oral
Fruit
Wound
Fruits are crushed, dried, pounded into powder and sprayed on wound
skin
Chenopodium murale L.
Chenopodiaceae
Hamedmado, hamlikebbo
Herb
Leaf
Tetanus
Leaves are crushed, mixed with butter, roasted on metal plate and smeared on affected area before covering it with cotton cloth. Application is repeated three to four times within a week
Dermal
SA01332
Vitiligo
Leaves are crushed and pasted applied on affected area
Dermal
Citrus lemon (L.) Burm. f.
Rutaceae
Lomin
Shrub
Fruit
Haemorrhoids
Fruits and leaves are pounded, mixed with butter and applied on affected area
anal
SA01369
Blood pressure
Fruit juice is added into cup of water and drunk every morning
oral
cough
Fruit decoction with sugar added into it is taken orally
oral
Tetanus
Crushed fruit is mixed with butter and applied on affected area and is covered with clean cotton
Dermal
Clerodendrum myricoides (Hochst.) R.Br. Ex Vatke
Verbenaceae
Leaf
Arthritis/rheumatism
Apply butter on patient’s head and let him/her fumigated with leaves of the plant
nasal
SA01347
Conjunctivitis and trachoma
Leaves are crushed and added into boiling water and the patient steam baths himself
ophthalmic
Root
Evil eye
Roots are pounded into powder and sprinkled on fire to expel evil eye
Coffea arabica L.
Rubiaceae
Buna
Shrub
Seed
Amoebiasis
Seeds are roasted, pounded into powder, mixed with honey and taken orally
oral
SA01397
wound
Seeds are roasted, and pounded into powder and paste applied on affected part
Dermal
Fire burn
Seeds are roasted, pounded into powder and paste applied on affected area after mixing it with sap of Aloe megalacantha
Dermal
Colutea abyssinica Jaub. and Spach.
Fabaceae
Qaqata
Shrub
Leaf
wound
Leaves are pounded into powder and sprayed on wound
Dermal
SA01342
Commicarpus grandiflorus (A. Rich.) Standl.
Nyctaginaceae
Ezni Tawa
Herb
Leaf
Furunclosis
Leaves are crushed and paste smeared on affected area
Dermal
SA01354
Commiphora schimperi (Berg) Engl.
Burseraceae
Anqa
Tree
Latex
wound
Latex smeared on wound
Dermal
SA01323
Cordia africana Lam.
Boragenaceae
Awhi
Tree
Leaf
febrile illness
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and liquid taken with coffee
oral
SA01367
Croton macrostachyus Del.
Euphorbiaceae
Tanbuk
Tree
Leaf
diarrhoea
Leaves are crushed squeezed and a cup of juice taken with honey
Oral
SA01373
Bark
Bloat
A bark is dried, pounded into powder and one to two spoons of powder are added into coffee or tea and taken for a week
oral
Root
jaundice
Root bark is dried, pounded into powder and two to three spoons of powder are added into a cup containing water. Treatment is taken for 21 days
oral
Leaf, bark
Sudden stomach ache
Dried bark/leaves are pounded into powder, one to two tea spoon of powder are added into skimmed milk and served once
oral
Bark
Leaf
Malaria
Dried bark is pounded into powder, two to three spoons of powder added into local beer and taken for a week once per day. The medicine could cause diarrhoea and vomiting
oral
scabies
Leaves are crushed, mixed with butter and dressed on affected part
Dermal
Leaf sap
Tinea versicolor
Sap of leaves are applied on affected area
Dermal
Leaf
Urine retention
Leaves are added onto boiled water with sugar. Solution is then taken every morning for seven days
oral
Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich.
Cucurbitaceae
Ramboramb, lomin bita
Herb
Leaf
Anthrax
Leaves are either ground into powder or crushed, squeezed, filtered, mixed with coffee and taken with a coffee cup for two days
oral
SA01321
Root
Eye disease
Roots are chewed
oral
Jaundice
Roots are chewed
oral
Stomach ache
Roots are chewed
oral
Stomach ache following delivery
Roots are chewed
oral
Snake bite
Roots are chewed
oral
Fruit
Ear infection
Three drops of fruit juice are applied into ear for five days
ear
Tuberculosis
Roots are chewed
oral
Root
Teeth ache
Roots are chewed
oral
Fruit
Asthma
Fruits are washed, dried, ground into powder, added onto boiled coffee and drunk
oral
Root, leaf
Eczema
Roots and leaves are ground into powder, mixed with honey and dressed on affected area
Dermal
Fruit/leaf
Tetanus
Fruits and leaves are crushed, mixed with butter, heated on fire and applied on affected area and covered with clean cotton cloth. This is repeated for three days
dermal
Cucurbita pepo L.
Cucurbitaceae
Duba
Herb
Seed
Tapeworm
Seven roasted seeds are taken orally, followed by three hours of fasting
oral
SA01390
Fruit
Urine retention
Fruits are cooked and taken as soup
oral
Cynoglossum coeruleum Hochst. ex A.DC.
Boraginaceae
Teng Begie
Herb
Leaf
Febrile illness (michi)
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and liquid taken with coffee or its lotion is applied on skin
Oral or dermal
SA01359
Cyphostemma adenocaule (steud.ex A. Rich) Descoings ex Wild and Drummond
vitaceae
Aserkuka fetahkuka
Climber
Root
Skull wound
Dried roots are ground into powder, mixed with butter and dressed on affected area
Dermal
SA01346
Snake bite
Half of finger-sized root is chewed to detoxify poison
oral
Datura stramonium L.
Solanaceae
mestenager
Herb
Leaf
Tetanus
Fresh leaves are crushed, mixed with butter, heated and smeared on affected area before covering it with clean cotton cloth
Dermal
SA01312
Dandruff
Leaves are crushed and creamed on shaved head
Dermal
Seed
Teeth ache
Seeds are roasted on iron sheet and the patient inhales smoke
Oral/nasal
abortion
Half tea spoon of seeds are ground into powder, mixed with water and half of cup is drunk
oral
Leaf
Brain sharpness
Leaves are crushed, squeezed, filtered and a cup of juice is taken for some days
oral
Leishmaniasis
Leaves are crushed and pasted on affected area
dermal
Furunculosis
Leaves are crushed and pasted on affected area
Dermal
Herpes zoster
Leaves are roasted on iron sheet, pounded into powder, mixed with butter and smeared on affected area
Dermal
Scabies
Leaves are roasted on iron sheet, pounded into powder, mixed with butter and smeared on affected area
Dermal
eczema
Leaves are roasted on iron sheet and pounded in to powder. After mixed with pure butter smeared on affected area
Dermal
Dodonaea angustifolia L. f.
Sapindaceae
Tahsos
Tree
Leaf
Herpes zoster
Leaves are roasted, ground into powder, mixed with butter and smeared on affected area
Dermal
SA01327
wound
Leaf powder is sprayed on wound
Dermal
Erucastrum arabicum Drummond and Hemsely
Brassicaceae
Hamli gudible
Herb
Leaf
Ring worm
Leaves are rubbed on skin
Dermal
SA01317
Erythrina abyssinica Lam. ex DC.
Fabaceae
Zuwabue, enqui hebey
Tree
Bark
Evil eye
Put bark on fire and let patient to fumigate himself with smoke
nasal
SA01322
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
Myrtaceae
Tsada Kelamitose
Tree
Leaf
Febrile illness (michi)
The patient baths himself with steam of boiled leaves
Oral/nasal
SA01376
Tinea pedis
Leaves are boiled in water and the patient washes his feet with the decoction
dermal
Euclea divinorum Hiern.
Ebenaceae
Kuliew
Shrub
Root
Scorpion bite
Roots are chewed to relieve pain
oral
SA01379
Root, stem
Rheumatism and arthritis
The patient spreads animal butter on his/her head, burn roots and stems on fire and baths him/herself with smoke
Dermal
Root
Urine retention
Roots are chewed
oral
Euphorbia cactus Boiss
Euphorbiaceae
Kolqual hamat
Shrub
Latex
Leishmaniasis
Latex is smeared on affected area
Dermal
SA01386
wound
Add few latex drops on wound
Dermal
Gonorrhoea and syphilis
Add three to four drops of latex on a piece of ‘enjera’ and eat it. Medicine is taken for five consecutive days. Overdose may cause diarrhoea and vomiting
oral
Root
Jaundice
Roots are ground into powder, mixed with honey and taken for seven days
oral
Latex
Ascariasis
Four drops of latex are mixed with sugar solution and taken once before diet
oral
leprosy
Latex smeared on affected area
Dermal
Euphorbia petitiana A. Rich.
Euphorbiaceae
Demaito demu
Herb
Latex
Ring worm
Latex smeared on affected area
Dermal
SA01348
Ficus palmata Forssk.
Moraceae
Beless
Tree
Latex
Wart
Latex smeared on the first growing wart
Dermal
SA01304
haemorrhoids
Latex smeared on affected area
Dermal
Wound
Dress wound with latex
Dermal
Foeniculum vulgare Miller
Apiaceae
shelan
Herb
Whole plant
Urine retention
Take solution of the plant boiled in water
oral
SA01362
Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) Aiton f.
Asclepiadaceae
Demaito bereka
Herb
Latex
Ringworm
Dress latex on affected area
Dermal
Leaves, stem
Arthritis
Ground leaves and stems, mix powder with butter and apply on affected body. Patient needs to expose himself to sunlight for an hour
Dermal
SA01343
Root
Abortion
Chew the root
oral
Gossypium herbaceum L.
Malvaceae
Tut
Shrub
Root
Snake bite
Roots are chewed to detoxify poison
oral
SA01363
Hibiscus micranthus L.f
Malvaceae
Segot Hamat
Shrub
Whole plant
typhus
House is fumigated with smoke to protect oneself from the disease
nasal
Hypoestes forskaolii (Vahl) R. Br.
Acanthaceae
Gerbia
Herb
Leaf
jaundice
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and juice taken orally
SA01315
Jasminum granditlorum L. subsp. floribundum (R.Br. ex Fresen.) P.S. Green
Oleaceae
habitselim
Shrub
Leaf
Ascariasis
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and cup of juice with sugar is taken orally
oral
SA01326
tapeworm
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and cup of juice with sugar is taken orally
oral
wound
Leaves are roasted on iron sheet ground into powder and are sprayed on wound
Dermal
vomiting
Leaves are chewed to stop vomiting
oral
Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. ex A.Nees) T. Anders
Acanthaceae
Shemeza
Shrub
Leaf
Jaundice
Seven leaves of J. schimperiana and seven leaves of Croton mycrostachyus roasted on iron sheet, crushed into powder are eaten with ‘enjera’ daily for twenty-one days
oral
SA01301
A cup of leaf juice of the plant is taken daily for twenty-one days
oral
Klinia odora Forssk.
Asteraceae
Berier
Shrub
Whole plant
Snake bite, evil eye, evil spirit
House is fumigated to repel snakes and expel evil spirit
nasal
SA01378
Leonotis ocymifolia (Bunn. f.) Iwarsson
Lamiaceae
Keyh Embeba Ketater
Herb
Whole plant
Febrile illness (michi)
Fumigating oneself with smoke of plant
nasal
SA01371
Eye disease
Fumigating oneself with smoke of plant
nasal
Lepidium sativum L.
Brassicaceae
Shenfa
Herb
Seed
Amoebiasis and diarrhoea
Seeds are ground into powder, mixed with honey and then taken for three days
Dermal
SA01310
Gland TB
Open swelling/wound, add small amount of sulphur and covered it with seed paste of L. sativum and latex of C. procera
Dermal
Evil spirit
Grind seeds, add powder into water and spray solution indoor to expel evil sprit
Dermal
malaria
L. sativum seeds are crushed with leaves of R. chalepensis and A. Sativum and then taken orally for seven days
Dermal
Premna oligotricha L.
Lamiaceae
Sasa hadima
Shrub
Leaf
Ascariasis
Leaves are crushed and squeezed and a cup of juice is taken once orally
SA01325
Linum usitatissimum L.
Linaceae
Entatie
Seed
Placental retention
Seeds roasted on iron sheet and grinding into powder, then cooked in the presence of honey and taken for a month before delivery
oral
SA01386
amoebiasis
Seeds are ground, mixed with water and a cup of juice drunk in the morning
oral
Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.
Solanaceae
Tsebhi Awun
Herb
Leaf
Anthrax
Leaves are crushed, mixed with honey and swallowed
oral
SA01352
Maesa lanceolata Forssk.
Myrsinaceae
Saira
Tree
Leaf
Scabies
Leaves are crushed and juice smeared on affected part
Dermal
SA01302
Seed
Tapeworm
Seeds are ground, powder mixed with water and a cup of juice taken orally once
oral
Malva verticillata L.
Malvaceae
Enkeftiha
Herb
Leaf
Anthrax
Leaves are crushed, mixed with honey and swallowed
oral
SA01330
Melia azedarach L.
Meliaceae
Neem
Tree
Leaf
Tonsillitis
Crush leaves, filter and drunk the juice
oral
SA01382
Seed, leaf
Dandruff
Seeds and leaves are crushed and paste applied on head skin
Dermal
Leaf
Malaria
Leaves are crushed and squeezed, and a cup of solution taken orally daily for five days
Leaves are boiled in water and solution taken daily for a month by cup of tea until improvement
oral
SA01339
Diarrhoea
Leaves are ground, powder is mixed with water and a cup of solution taken orally
oral
malaria
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and a cup of juice taken daily for five days
Nicotiana tabacum L.
Solanaceae
Tunbako
Herb
Root
Snake bite
Roots are chewed or crushed and paste applied on wound
oral
SA01308
Ocimum lamiifolium. Hochst.Ex Benth.
Lamiaceae
Dem akher (demekasie)
Shrub
Leaf
Febrile illness (michi)
Leaves are crushed and solution drunk with coffee. Juice is also smeared on skin
oral/dermal
SA01311
Olea europaea L subsp. cuspidata (Wall. ex G. Don) Cif.
Oleaceae
Awlie
Tree
Leaf
Asthma
Leaves are boiled in water and a cup of solution drunk every evening with skimmed milk to arrest vomiting
oral
SA01374
vomiting
Leaves are chewed to stop vomiting
oral
Amoebiasis
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and a cup of taken orally
oral
Eye infection
Leaves are crushed, squeezed, filtered and two to three drops are added daily into the eye for five days
ophthalmic
Teeth ache
Leaves are crushed and paste applied on affected area
Dermal
Ascariasis
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and a cup of juice taken orally for one day
oral
Ormocarpum pubescence (Hochst.) Cuf. ex Gillett
Fabaceae
Alendia
Shrub
Stem
rheumatism
Stems burned on prepared place at home and females bathing the smoke putting butter on their head
nasal
SA01320
Orobanche minor Smit.
Orobanchaceae
Selmi
Herb
Whole plant
Eye disease
Burn the plant on clay dish and let the patient fumigate himself with smoke
nasal
SA01338
Otostegia integrifolia Benth.
Lamiaceae
Chendog
Shrub
Leaf
Blood pressure
Leaves are boiled boiling in water and a cup of solution drunk every morning until recovery
oral
SA01357
Oxalis anthelmintica A. Rich
Oxalidaceae
Habachego
Herb
Leaf
Heart failure
leaves are eaten for long period of time (about a year)
oral
SA01318
Tapeworm
Patient eats some and remains on diet for next three hours
oral
Pavonia burchellii (DC.) Dyer.
Malvaceae
Neger negarito
Shrub
Leaf
Stomach ache
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and a cup of juice taken orally
SA01388
cough
A cup of leaf juice is taken orally
Phytolacca dodecandra L’Herit.
Phytolacaceae
Shebti
Shrub
Root
Rabies
Dried root of the plant is powdered and mixed with local alcohol and a cup of solution drunk daily for twelve days. vomiting is its side effect and, therefore, restricted to children and pregnant women
oral
SA01387
Leaf
Gonorrhoea
Leaves of P. dodecandra and roots of C. macrostachyus are ground, powdered mixed with water and solution drunk with one to two cups of coffee
oral
Jaundice
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and one cup of juice taken daily for 21 days
oral
scabies
Crushed leaves are rubbed on the skin. Skin is then washed in half –hour time
Dermal
Plantago lanceolata L.
Plantaginaceae
Melhas kelbi
Herb
Leaf
Tinea corperis
Leaves are rubbed on affected area
Dermal
SA01358
wound
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and solution applied on wound
Dermal
Plumbago zeylanica L.
Plumbaginaceae
Aftihi
Shrub
Root
Evil eye, evil spirit, magic
Roots are fumigated in the house
nasal
SA01324
Polygala abyssinica Fres.
Polygalaceae
Etselebona
Herb
Root
Snake bite
Roots are chewed
oral
SA01314
Sharpen mind
Finger-sized root is chewed. Overdose may causes madness
oral
Sever stomach ache
Roots are chewed
oral
Rhamnus prinoides L’Herit.
Rhamnaceae
Gesho
Shrub
Leaf
Tonsillitis
Mothers chewing the leaves and spit to mouth of their children where as young ones chew it for themselves
Dermal
SA01350
Eczema
Leaves crushed, mixed with pure butter and dressing the affected part
Dermal
Rhoicissus tridentata (L. f.) Wild & Drummond
Vitaceae
Hareg temen (etsezewie)
Climber
Root
Snake bite
Less than a finger-sized root is chewed and swallowed. Overdose causes severe stomach ache and vomiting
oral
SA01344
Rumex abyssinicus Jacq.
Polygonaceae
mokemoko
Herb
Root
Blood pressure
Roots are ground, powder mixed with water and solution drunk with tea every morning until improvement
oral
SA01398
Cancer
Root powder is mixed in spicy stew to increase its power of curing the disease
oral
Tooth ache
Chew root and apply paste on affected tooth
oral
Rumex nervosus Vahl.
Polygonaceae
Huhot
Shrub
Stem
gastritis
Young stems are chewed with salt and swallowed
oral
SA01394
Root
Snake bite
Roots are chewed to detoxify poison
oral
Leaf
Skin rash
Leaves are crushed and paste rubbed on affected area
Dermal
Breast cancer
Leaves are crushed and paste applied on affected area
Dermal
Ricinus communis L.
Euphorbiaceae
Gulie
Shrub
Seed
Amoebiasis
Crushed seeds are mixed with water and taken with a cup of tea once
oral
SA01377
Ruta chalepensis L.
Rutaceae
Chena adam
Herb
Leaf
Evil eye
Rub the leaves and Smell
nasal
SA01380
cough
Leaves boiled in milk are taken orally
oral
Malaria
Crushed the leaves of the plant with bulb of A. sativum in by adding and take medicine orally for three days
oral
Flue
Leaf of R. chalepensis is pounded with bulb of A. Sativum, mixed with soup and used as a drink
oral
Sansevieria erythraeae Mattei
Dracenaceae
Eka termo
Shrub
Leaf
Ear infection
Leaves are heated on fire, juice squeezed into tea cup and three to four drops are added into the infected ear
inner
SA01365
Schinus molle L
Anacardiaceae
Tselim berbere
Tree
Stem
Blood pressure
Chewing the stem
oral
SA01364
Leaf
Eye infection
Boil leaves in water and let the patient bath himself with steam
oral
Solanum hirtulum Steud. ex A. Rich.
Solanaceae
Alalemo kelbi
Herb
Root
Stomach ache
Chewing the root
oral
SA01393
Solanum incanum L.
Solonaceaee
Neshtey engule
Shrub
Leaf
Anthrax
Seven leaves are crushed, mixed with honey and taken orally
oral
SA01372
Root
Arthritis
Roots are ground, powder mixed with animal butter and cream applied on affected body part and let the patient expose himself to sun light for five days
Dermal
Stomach ache
Chewing the root
Dermal
Gonorrhoea
Roots are ground, powder mixed with honey and paste taken for five days
oral
Solanum marginatum L. f.
Solanaceae
Abyiengule
Shrub
Seed
Tuberculosis
Seeds are dried, crushed and added into milk or coffee and solution taken every morning for 21 days
oral
SA01313
Solanum nigrum L.
Solanaceae
Alalemo Wezero
Shrub
Leaf
Epistaxis
Leaves crushed and pasted on the nasal openings
Dermal
SA01360
Bleeding after delivery
Leaves are crushed and inserted into vagina
Dermal
Tagetes minuta L.
Asteraceae
Etsefaruos
Herb
Whole plant
Evil eye
Smoking the plant and let the patient fumigate himself
nasal
SA01389
Tragia uncinata M. Gilbert
Euphorbiaceae
Amae
Herb
Root
Impotence
Roots are ground and taken orally with local soup for a week
oral
SA01361
Trigonella foenum-graecum L.
Fabaceae
Aba’ke
Herb
Seed
Urticaria
Grind seeds , mix powder with butter and apply cream on affected part
dermal
SA01392
Stomach ache
Boil powder in water, add sugar and given to babies
oral
Verbascum sinaiticum Benth.
Scrophulariaceae
Trnaka
Herb
Leaf
Bleeding
Leaves are crushed and paste applied on affected area
dermal
SA01366
Haemorrhoids
Leaves are crushed, packed in a piece of cloth and inserted through rectum
rectal
Fire burn
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and juice applied on the damaged part using clean cotton
dermal
Swelling
Rub the swelling using fresh leaves
dermal
Verbena officinalis subsp. africana R. Fernandes & Verdc.
Verbenaceae
Atush
Herb
Whole plant
Ascariasis
Plant is crushed, squeezed and juice taken with cup of coffee for three days
SA01307
Diarrhoea
Plant is crushed, squeezed and juice taken with cup of coffee for two to three days
oral
Leaf
Ear infection
Leaves are crushed, squeezed, juice filtered with clean cotton cloth, juice mixed with goat butter and three drops are added into the infected ear
auricular
Herpes zoster
Leaves are crushed and paste applied on affected area
Dermal
Root
Snake bite
Chewing the root
oral
Tonsillitis
Adults chew the root and spit paste into the mouth of their sick child
oral
Whole plant
abdominal pain and febrile illness
Plant is crushed, squeezed and solution taken with the cup of tea
oral
Vernonia amygdalina Del.
Asteraceae
Grawa
Tree
Leaf, root
Devil sickness
Rub body with crushed leaves or smoke root and inhale the smoke. Crushed young twigs and leaves may also be spread in a house
Dermal/nasal
SA01306
Leaf
Malaria
Crushed leaves of this plant and R. Chalepensis are boiled and three tablet- sized medicine prepared by mixing paste with honey is served every morning for seven days
oral
Root
Snake bite
Chewing the root
oral
Leaf
Teeth ache
Leaves are chewed with bulbs of A. sativum
oral
Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal
Solanaceae
Agoal
Shrub
Leaf, stem
michi
Leaves and stems of the plant are decocted with leaves of E. globulus and C. africana and patient takes steam nasally
nasal
SA01356
Zehneria scabra (Linn.f.) Sond.
Cucurbitaceae
Haregressa
Herb
Whole plant
Febrile illness
The plant together with E. globulus and J. schimperiana is boiled in water and patient takes steam nasally
Nasal
SA01305
Zingiber officinale Rosc.
Zingiberaceae
gengible
Herb
Rhizome
Blood pressure
Chewing the rhizome
Oral
SA01399
Ziziphus spina-christi (L.) Desf.
Rhamnaceae
geba
Shrub
Whole plant
Dandruff
Leaves are crushed and paste applied on head skin
Dermal
SA01370
Table 2
List of medicinal plants used to treat livestock diseases
Scientific name
Family
Local name
Habit
Parts used
Disease treated
Animal treated
Mode of preparation and administration
Application route
Voucher no
Aloe megalacantha Baker
Aloaceae
Ere
Shrub
Exudate
Anthrax
Cattle
Crush leaves, squeeze the exudate, mix it with cold water let the animal drink one cup of the solution
Oral
SA01384
Trypanosomiasis
Cattle
Exudate is mixed with poultry faeces is smeared on affected body parts
Dermal
Root
Dislocation of body parts
Cattle
Roots are cut into pieces, tied by thread and tied on damaged part of the body
Dermal
Exudate
Wound
Cattle
Exudate is smeared on affected body part of the animal
Dermal
Equine
Sheep
Goat
Scabies
Cattle
Crush leaves and apply exudate on the infected skin
Dermal
Sheep
Goat
Achyranthes aspera L.
Amaranthaceae
Muchelo
Herb
Root
Thelaziasis (eye disease)
Cattle
Roots are chewed and juice spitted into the affected eye of cattle
Eye
SA01303
Equine
Allium sativum L.
Alliaceae
Tsada shugurti
Herb
Bulb
Thelaziasis (eye disease)
Cattle
Bulbs are crushed, squeezed, filtered, mixed with soot and paste inserted into affected part
Eye
SA01368
Equine
Aspergillosis
Cattle
Crush bulb with leaves of Leucas sp., squeezed it, add salt and administer a cup of the juice
Nasal
Equine
Sheep
Goat
Foot and mouth disease
Cattle
Allium sativum is crushed, mixed with honey and apply paste on affected part
Dermal
Newcastle disease
Poultry
Bulb is crushed, mixed with ‘enjera’ and is orally administered
Oral
Argemone mexicana L.
Pappavaraceae
Medafe tilian
Herb
Leaf
Sore
Camel
Leaves are pounded into powder and sprayed on the wound daily after washing it with salted water
Dermal
SA01381
Equine
Cattle
Calpurnia aurea (Alt.) Benth.
Fabaceae
Hetsawets
Tree
Seed
Salmonellosis
Cattle
A cup of seeds are ground, powder mixed with salted cold water and solution given orally administered
Oral
SA01345
Sheep
Goat
Leaf
E. coli infection
Cattle
Leaves are crushed, squeezed, filtered and juice is orally administered
Oral
Sheep
Goat
Lichen simplex chronicus (skin disease)
Cattle
Leaves are crushed and rubbed on the skin
Dermal
Sheep pox
Sheep
Leaves are crushed and rubbed on the skin
Dermal
Goat
Calotropis procera (Ait.) Ait.
Asclepidaceae
Ginda
Shrub
Latex
Sore
Cattle
Latex smeared on affected area until cure
Dermal
SA01375
Equine
Sheep
Goat
Croton macrostachyus Del.
Euphorbiaceae
Tanbuk
Tree
Leaves
Scabies
Cattle
Leaf of C. macrostachyus is crushed and rubbed on the affected skin three to four days consecutively
Dermal
SA01373
Goat
Sheep
Cucumis ficifolius A. Rich.
Cucurbitaceae
rambo Rambo
Shrub
Root
infection
Equine
Roots is crushed into powder, mixed with cold water and a cup of solution is given orally
Oral
SA01321
Cattle
Sheep
Goat
Hyena bite
Equine
Root is crushed, mixed with ‘tella’, decanted and paste applied on affected part
Dermal
Cattle
Cyphostemma adenocaule (steud.ex A. Rich) Descoings ex Wild and Drummond
Vitaceae
Aserkuka fetahkuka
Climber
Root
Pack sore
Equine
Roots are crushed, dried, ground and powder sprinkled on affected part until sore dries
Dermal
SA01346
Dodonaea angustifolia L. f.
Sapindaceae
Tahsos
Shrub
Leaf
Sore on cattle and equine
Equine
Leaves are dried on hot iron plate, ground and powder spread on affected part
Dermal
SA01327
Cattle
Sheep
Goat
Twig
Dislocation of body part
Cattle
Dislocated part is tied with twigs until healed
Dermal
Equine
Sheep
Goat
Eucalyptus globulus Labill.
Myrtaceae
Tsada kelamitos
Tree
Leaf
Avian cholera
Poultry
Leaf of E. globulus is ground, powder boiled in water, solution added onto barely soup and fed to chicken
Oral
SA01376
Euphorbia cactus Boiss
Euphorbiaceae
Kolqual hamat
Shrub
Latex
Black leg
Cattle
Apply latex on the swollen part to protect the spread of the disease. Latex is also given in small amount with ‘enjera’
Dermal, oral
SA01386
Justicia schimperiana (Hochst. ex A.Nees) T. Anders
Acanthaceae
Shemeza
Shrub
Leaf, root
Blackleg
Cattle
Leaf and root of J. schimperiana is pounded with dried fruit of Ricinus communis. One bottle of the Solution is given to sick animal
Oral
SA01301
Leaf
Parasites
Cattle
Pounded leaf of J. schimperiana is mixed with malt powder of barely and two to three glass of ‘tella’ given to the animal
Oral
Equine
Goat
Sheep
Lepidium sativum L.
Brassicaceae
Shenfa
Herb
Seed
Dysentery
cattle
Seeds are crushed, powder mixed with finger milt bread and orally administered
Oral
SA01310
sheep
goat
cenoresis
sheep
Crushed seed of L. sativum and bulb of A. sativum is are mixed with cold water and a cup of solution is given to the animal
Oral
goat
Diarrhoea
Cattle
Seed of Lepidium sativum are ground, powdered mixed with crushed bulb of A. sativum and given to the animal
Dermal
Bloating
Cattle
Seed of L. sativum and bulb of Allium sativum are crushed together, mixed with water and given to cattle
Dermal
Leucas abyssinica (Benth.) Briq.
Lamiaceae
Sewa Kerni
Shrub
Leaf
Internal parasites
Sheep
Leaves are crushed and squeezed, mixed with crushed bulb of Allium sativum, solution is then filtered and applied nasally
Nasal
SA01383
Goat
Premna oligotricha L.
Lamiaceae
Sasa hadima
Shrub
Leaf
Internal parasites
Sheep
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and given to sick animal
Nasal
SA01325
Goat
Leaf
Pasterellosis
Sheep
Leaves are pounded with bulb of A. sativum, squeezed and solution given to sick animal
Nasal
Goat
Linum usitatissimum L.
Lineaaceae
Entatie
H.erb
Seed
Placental retention
Cattle
Seeds of L. usitatissimum are powdered and half a glass of powder is dissolved in water and given to cattle
Oral
SA01386
Sheep
Goat
Melia azedarach L.
Meliaceae
Nim
Tree
Leaf
Tick ulcer
Cattle
Leaves are rushed and rubbed on lymphagities ulcer
Dermal
SA01382
Sheep
Goat
Nicotiana glauca R. Grah.
Solanaceae
Tenbish/ cherged
Shrub
Leaf
External parasites
Cattle
Leaves crushed and rubbed on the skin of the animal
Dermal
SA01391
Sheep
Goat
Nicotiana tabacum L.
Solanaceae
Tumbako
Herb
Leaf, root
Plant toxin (toxicosis)
Cattle
Leaves and root are dried, powdered, mixed with salted water and a cup of the solution is given for one day the poisoned animal
Oral
SA01308
Goat
Sheep
Leaf
Leech infestation
Cattle
Leaves are crushed, squeezed and a cup of solution is nasally applied
Nasal
Leech infestation
Cattle
Crushed and baked leaves are pounded, added on half litre of water and given to affected animal
Oral
Trypanosomiasis
Cattle
Leaves are crushed and baked, mixed with water and solution given to sick animal
Oral
Otostegia integrifolia Benth.
Lamiaceae
Cheendog
Shrub
Whole plant
Ecto- parasites infestation
Cattle
Fumigate the plant in the house where the animals are kept
Dermal
SA01357
Equine
Poultry
Goat
Sheep
Phytolacca dodecandra L’Herit.
Phytolaccaceae
Shebti
Shrub
Leaf
Rabies
Cattle
Leaves are crushed with leaves of C. mycrostachyus, squeezed and a cup of juice mixed with ‘tella’ is given to the animal
Oral
SA01387
Equine
Sheep
Goat
Scabies and external parasite infestation
Cattle
Leaves are crushed with little water and paste rubbed on the skin. The skin is then washed after thirty minutes
Dermal
sheep
Goat
Rhoicissus tridentata (L. f.) Wild & Drummond
Vitaceae
Hareg temen
Climber
Root/Stem
Snake bite
Cattle
Root /stem is crushed, squeezed, mixed with cold water and a cup of solution is given only once to the animal
Oral
SA01344
Goat
Sheep
Equine
Ricinus communis L.
Euphobiaceae
Gulie
Shrub
Root
Sudden Sickness
Cattle
Roots of R. communis and Justica schimperiana are pounded, mixed with cold water and a cup of the solution is to the sick animal
Oral
SA01377
Fruit
Anthrax
Cattle
Dried fruits are ground, powder mixed with cold water and a cup of solution is given the sick animal
Oral
Root
Actinomycosis
Cattle
Root is pounded by adding table salt and ash and mixed with water, solution is filtered and two glasses of it are to the sick animal
Oral
Sheep
Goat
Fruit
Epizoitic lymphagities
Cattle
Dried fruits are pounded and mixed with exudate of Aloe megalacantha and paste applied on ulcerated skin
Dermal
Equine
Sheep
Goat
Rhamnus prinoides L'Herit.
Rhamnaceae
Gesh
Shrub
Leaf
Plant toxin (toxicosis)
Cattle
Leaves are crushed into powdered and mixed with malt of barely or oil or dissolved soap and one or two cups of the solution is given to the poisoned animal
Oral
SA01350
Sheep
Goat
Ruta chalepensis L.
Rutaceae
Chena adam
Herb
Leaf
Coccsidiosis
Poultry
Whole part of the plant, root of J. schimperiana and bark of C. mycrostachyus are pounded together and paste given to chicken by mixing it ‘enjera’ or water
Oral
SA01380
Salvia schimperi Benth.
Lamiaceae
Meshendedo
Herb
Leaf
Foot and mouth disease
Cattle
Leaves are crushed, mixed with honey and dressed on the affected part of the animal
Dermal
SA01355
Goat
Sheep
Solanum marginatum L. f.
Solonaceae
Abiyi engule
Shrub
Fruit
Urinary retention
Cattle
Fruits are crushed, pounded, two to three spoons of powder is mixed with cold water and a cup of solution is given to the sick animal
Oral
SA01313
Sheep
Goat
Tuberculosis
Cattle
Fruits are crushed, pounded, two to three spoons of powder is mixed with cold water and a cup of solution is given to the sick animal until recovery
Oral
Sheep
Goat
Relatively higher numbers of medicinal plants were used to treat intestinal parasites; diarrhoea and stomach ache (26 species), wounds, scabies and leprosy (23 species), respiratory disease (16 species), evil eye, evil spirit, devil sickness (15 species) and rheumatism and arthritis (15 species).
Anzeige
Plant part (s) and methods used in preparation of remedies
Leaves were the most preferred plants parts used in the preparation of remedies (44%), followed by roots (16%), whole plants (10%) and seeds (8%) (Figure 2). Crushing (37%), pounding (15%) and chewing (13%) were dominantly used in the preparation of remedies (Figure 3). Substances such as cold water, honey, coffee, butter, salt, sugar, soap, ash and milk were mixed with the plant materials during remedies preparations. The majority (60%) of remedies were prepared from fresh plant materials. Some (21.1%) were prepared from either dry or fresh materials and others (18.9%) from dry parts only.
Figure 2
Plant part(s) used in the study area for remedies preparations.
Figure 3
Preparation methods of remedies.
×
×
Route of remedy administration and dosage
Most medicinal plant preparations were applied internally (64.6%), out of which drinking took the lead (44.5%). Some are applied externally on the skin (35.4%), of which 42.5% are smeared on the skin (42.5%) (Table 3). Informants reported that dosages differed among traditional medicine practitioners even in treating the same health problem as remedies are prescribed with units of local measurement such as pinch, tea spoon (powder), tablet size of seed (semisolid), coffee cup, tea cup and water cup (liquid), finger length (root) and fist (leaves).
Table 3
Route of administration of remedies
Main route of application
Mode of application
Percent applied
Internal application
drinking
44.5
chewing and swallowing
17
swallowing
12
Smoke bath
9.6
nasal
6
auricular
3
ophthalmic
2
Steam bath
2
anal
1.4
Buried
1.4
Total
100
External application
Smearing
42.5
pasting
20
rubbing
12.5
spraying
7.5
Chewing and spitting
7.5
washing
6
tying
3.8
Total
100
Popularity of reported medicinal plants
Cucumis ficifolius is the most popular medicinal plant in the study area, cited by 81.8% of the informants, followed by Allium sativum (77%). Each of the medicinal plants Croton marcostachyus, Ruta chalepensis and Vebena officinalis were cited by 75.8% of the informants (Table 4).
Table 4
Medicinal plants with highest informants’ consensus
Botanical name
Number (%) of informants who cited the plant
Cucumis ficifolius
54 (81.8)
Allium sativum
51 (77)
Croton macrostachyus
50 (75.8)
Ruta chalepensis
50 (75.8)
Vebena officinalis subsp. africana
50 (75.8)
Aloe megalocantha
48 (72.7)
Calotropis procera
48 (72.7)
Datura stramonium
48 (72.7)
Ocimum lamiifolium
48 (72.7)
Solanum incanum
48 (72.7)
Phytolacca dodecandra
47 (71)
Eucalyptus globulus
46 (69.7)
Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata
46 (69.7)
Plumbago zeylanica
46 (69.7)
Rhoicissus tridentata
46 (69.7)
Zehneria scabra
46 (69.7)
Cynoglossum coeruleum
45 (68)
Lepidium sativum
45 (68)
Withania somnifera
45 (68)
Informant consensus factor
Febrile illness is the disease group in the study area that scored the highest ICF value (0.97), followed by cardio-vascular problems (0.97), evil eye (0.95), hepatitis (0.95), warts and haemorrhoids (0.94), infectious wounds and scabies (0.92), snake and scorpion bites (0.92), fungal diseases (0.91) and intestinal parasites infection, diarrhoea and stomach ache (0.91) and malaria (0.91) (Table 5).
Table 5
Informant consensus factor (ICF) values for aliments categories
Disease categories
No. of species
Species (%)
No. of use citations
Use citations (%)
ICF
Abdominal irritation and vomiting
4
4.4
23
1
0.86
Bleeding and epistaxis
3
3.3
17
.8
0.88
Cardiovascular problems
5
5.6
85
3.7
0.95
Evil eye
15
16.7
287
12.6
0.95
Fungal diseases
14
15.6
138
6
.91
Head and tooth aches
8
8.9
60
2.6
0.88
Hepatitis
7
7.8
122
5
0.95
Infectious wounds and scabies
23
25.6
260
11
0.92
Intestinal parasites infection, diarrhoea and stomach ache
26
28.9
281
12
0.91
Malaria
8
8.9
79
3.5
0.91
Febrile illness
8
8.9
231
10
0.97
Non infectious swelling
10
11.1
87
3.7
0.89
Respiratory disease
16
17.8
136
6
0.89
Rheumatism and arthritis
15
16.7
105
4.6
0.87
Sensorial disease
11
12.2
102
4
0.90
Snake and scorpion bites
8
8.8
91
4
0.92
Urinary and placental retention
6
6.7
50
2.2
0.90
Venereal disease and reproductive organ problems
12
13.3
72
3
0.86
Warts and haemorrhoids
8
8.9
111
4.9
0.94
Anzeige
Informants’ preference on medicinal plants used to treat snake bite
Preference ranking exercises of six selected informants indicate that Rhoicissus tridentata was the most preferred plant in treating snake bite, followed by Nicotiana tabacum (Table 6).
Table 6
Preference ranking on selected plants used against snake bite
Medicinal plants
Respondents (A-H)
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Total
Rank
Cucumis ficifolius
3
2
1
4
3
2
3
5
23
6th
Gossypium herbaceum
3
2
4
5
4
2
3
4
27
5th
Nicotiana tabacum
5
3
4
5
5
3
3
4
32
2nd
Rhoicissus tridentata
6
5
3
6
5
5
4
3
37
1st
Verbena officinalis
6
3
2
4
3
3
2
5
28
4th
Vernonia amygdalina
5
4
4
3
5
2
4
3
30
3rd
Multipurpose medicinal plants
The people in the study district relied on locally growing plant species for various purposes such as construction, firewood, medicine, charcoal, fencing, agricultural tool and furniture. Direct matrix ranking exercise performed on five commonly reported multipurpose medicinal plants shows that Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata was the most useful multipurpose plant, followed by Cordia africana (Table 7).
Table 7
Results of direct matrix ranking on selected multipurpose medicinal plants
Species
Use category
Croton macrostachyus
Cordia africana
Maesa lanceolata
Olea europaeasubsp.cuspidata
Acokanthera schimperi
Firewood
2
3
3
4
3
Construction
3
4
4
4
3
Charcoal
2
2
3
4
2
Fencing
2
2
2
2
3
Agricultural instrument
4
3
3
4
1
Furniture
2
4
3
4
1
Medicine
4
3
4
4
4
Income source
2
4
2
4
2
Total
21
25
24
30
19
Rank
4th
2nd
3rd
1st
5th
Habitats of and threats to medicinal plants
The majority (60.2%) of medicinal plants were collected from the wild. Some (29%) were also collected from both farmlands and roadsides (Figure 4).
Figure 4
Habitats from which medicinal plants were collected.
×
According to reports of informants, agricultural expansion is considered as number one threat to the survival of medicinal plants in the study area, followed by, cutting of trees for charcoal and fire wood consumption (Table 8).
Table 8
Priority ranking of factors perceived as threats to medicinal plants
Factors
Respondents (R1-R7)
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
Total
%
Rank
Agricultural expansion
4
4
4
3
4
3
4
26
17.8
1st
Charcoal and fire wood consumption
4
3
4
4
3
3
3
24
16.4
2nd
Grazing
3
3
3
3
3
4
4
23
15.8
3rd
Settlement
2
2
3
2
2
3
2
16
11
6th
Timber and construction
2
3
4
3
3
1
4
20
13.7
4th
Drought
2
1
3
4
2
2
3
17
11.6
5th
Total
126
Key: Values 1–4 were given: 1 is the least destructive threat and 4 is the most destructive threat.
Marketed medicinal plants
Local market survey carried out in three towns of the District, namely Samre, Wenberta Adekeala and Fina Rewa revealed that plants were not sold in the markets for their sole medicinal purpose. The medicinal plants Klinia odora, Lepidium sativum, Allium sativum, Rumex abyssinicus, Plumbago zeylanica, Linum usitatissimum and Ruta chalepensis were sold primarily for their uses as species and food.
Discussion
It is encouraging to find out that a high number of medicinal plants (90 species) are still being used by people in Seharti Samre District of Tigray Region, northern Ethiopia, to treat several human and livestock diseases. Ethnobotanical studies conducted in Ofla and Raya-Azebo districts of the same Region [6] came up with comparable numbers of medicinal plants, 83 and 60 species, respectively.
Several of the medicinal plants that were recorded from Seharti Samre District, were also mentioned in reports of studies previously conducted in Ethiopia, some of which (e.g. Aloe sp, Ficus palmata, Justica schimperiana, Lepidium sativum, Linum usitatissimum, Nicotiana tabacum, Otostegia integrifolia, Ricinus communis, Rumex abyssinicus, Ruta chalepensis and Zehneria scabra) [6,19] were exactly used for same medicinal purposes, which could be an indication of their pharmacological effectiveness.
Analysis of the data revealed Solanaceae, Lamiaceae and Fabaceae as the highest contributors of medicinal plants in the Seharti Samre District, which could be a reflection of their dominance in the flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea [20,21] in terms of their species richness. The study also showed that people in the study District use a relatively high number of shrubs and herbs, which is in agreement with studies conducted elsewhere in the country [22].
It was found out that two-third of medicinal plants in the study District were harvested from the wild, which is in agreement with reports of many studies conducted in the country [6,23,24]. Medicinal plants growing in the wild are highly exposed to different anthropogenic factors such as agricultural expansion, deforestation for charcoal and fire wood consumption, grazing, and harvesting for timber production and construction [22]. Olea europaea subsp. cuspidata, Maesa lanceolata, Cordia africana, Croton mycrostachyus, Acokanthera schimperi, Phytolacca dedocandra) are among the medicinal plants that were reported to be highly affected by the aforementioned factors.
Leaves and root were the most commonly used plant parts in the preparation of remedies in the study District. Many studies conducted in different parts of Ethiopia also showed that leaves are used more frequently than any other parts [6,25,26]. As compared to other parts, damage inflicted on medicinal plants due to harvest of leaves is very minimal [27].
Most of the medicinal plant species were reported to be processed through crushing followed by pounding and chewing. Ethnobotanical studies conducted in different parts of the country [9,25,26] reported similar results. Majority of the remedies in the study District were reported to be taken internally/orally followed by smearing on the skin. Several studies conducted in different parts of the county [28] also revealed that oral followed by dermal were the principal routes of remedy administration.
One of the major problems in traditional medicine is lack of standard dosages and précised measurements [5]. According to informants in the study District, the amount of dosage prescribed for same/similar health problems vary as remedies are prescribed with different units of local measurement. Inconsistency of doses has also been reported in studies conducted elsewhere in Ethiopia [6,29,30].
The study revealed that informants above the age of 40 years had relatively better knowledge of medicinal plants as compared to the younger ones (20 to 40 years old). Similar study conducted among the Zay community in Ethiopia [24] revealed that 90% of the elders above 40 years of age had rich medicinal plant knowledge. Study conducted in Nigeria [31] reported that the highest percentage of younger generation had no any knowledge of traditional medicine practice due to more exposure to modern life style. This may demonstrate the impact of modernization on medicinal plant use and transfer of the associated knowledge to the younger generation. The fact that most of the knowledge on traditional medication is kept with elders for the sake of secrecy, gaining respect and generating income is believed to contribute towards depletion of the same as generation passes by.
Conclusion
A total of 90 medicinal plants were reported by informants from the study District. As most of the medicinal plants were harvested from the wild, appropriate conservation measures are required to ensure their sustainable harvesting besides to efforts of aawareness creation among the community by concerned bodies regarding the usefulness of their medical plants. The efficacy and safety of the claimed medicinal plants need to be evaluated before recommending them for their wider use. Priority should be given to medicinal plants with the highest informant agreement as such plants are believed to have better activity.
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to acknowledge Jimma University for financial support, informants, local administration and people of Seharti Samre District for their positive response, sharing their valuable knowledge and time as well as for their tremendous hospitality. We also thank the following offices of the District: Rural Agricultural Development Office, Health Office, Administrative Office and Plan and Finance Office for their provision of data and supportive letter during data collection.
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The authors declare that they have no competing interests.
Authors’ contributions
The three authors had significant intellectual contribution towards the design of the study, data collection and analysis and write-up of the manuscript. The authors read and approved the final manuscript.
