Introduction
Epidemiological associations between PD and cancer
General trends between PD and common cancers
Study | Reported positive association | Reported negative association | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Breast | Non-melanoma skin | Brain | Prostate | Lung | Bladder | Stomach | Colorectal | Leukemia | Uterus | |
Lin et al., 2015 [7] | 1.11 (0.90–1.37)c
|
1.81 (1.46–2.23)
c
|
3.42 (1.84–6.38)
c
|
1.80 (1.52–2.13)
c
|
1.56 (1.38–1.76)
c
|
1.59 (1.25–2.01)
c
|
1.59 (1.30–1.94)
c
|
1.47 (1.31–1.65)
c
|
1.62 (1.31–2.01)
c
e
|
1.83 (1.12–3.01)
c
|
Ong et al., 2014 [6] |
1.16 (1.1 0–1.22)
c
|
0.89 (0.86–0.92)
c
|
1.50 (1.34–1.68)
c
| 0.98 (0.94–1.01)
c
|
0.75 (0.71–0.78)
c
|
0.86 (0.82–0.91)
c
|
0.87 (0.80–0.95)
c
|
Colon: 0.87 (0.83–0.91)
c
|
Lymphatic: 1.11 (1.00–1.23)
c
|
Corpus: 1.17 (1.03–1.32)
c
|
Rectum: 0.89 (0.83–0.97)
c
|
Myeloid: 0.82 (0.72–0.94)
c
|
Cervix: 1.09 (0.83–1.40)
c
| ||||||||
Wirdefeldt et al., 2014 [5] | 1.02 (0.86, 1.21)a
| 1.05 (0.82, 1.36)a
| 1.43 (0.95, 2.14)a
|
1.12 (0.96– 1.31)
a
|
1.11 (0.60–2.04)
a
|
1.15 (0.89-1.48)
a
| 0.61 (0.24–1.54)a
| Colon: 0.75 (0.54–1.04)a
|
Lymphatic: 0.78 (0.35–1.76)a
|
Corpus: 1.66 (1.21–2.28)
a
|
1.24 (0.81–1.92) b
| 1.54 (0.96–2.49)b
|
4.78 (2.24–10.2)
b
| 0.99 (0.76–1.29)b
|
1.59 (0.92–2.77)
b
|
1.54 (0.95-2.50)
b
|
1.43 (0.66–3.08)
b
|
Colon: 1.66 (1.09–2.53)
b
|
Lymphatic: 1.78 (0.83–3.8)
c
|
Corpus: 2.55 (1.17–5.58)
b
| |
0.80 (0.57, 1.12)
c
|
1.40 (1.04, 1.88)
c
| 1.52 (0.86, 2.69)c
|
0.77 (0.63–0.92)
c
|
0.4 (0.24–0.66)
c
|
0.40 (0.24-0.66)
c
| Colon: 0.74 (0.52, 1.05)c
|
Myeloid: 2.95 (1.02–8.59)
b
| Corpus: 0.51 (0.23–1.13)c
| ||
Rugbjerg et al., 2012 [15] |
1.17 (1.02–1.34)
c
|
1.29 (1.18–1.39)
c
|
0.99 (0.67–1.40)
c
|
0.74 (0.64–0.86)
c
|
0.40 (0.33–0.48)
c
|
0.48 (0.38–0.60)
c
|
0.82 (0.73–0.92)
c
|
Lymphatic: 0.66 (0.42–0.99)
c
| Corpus: 0.82 (0.58–1.13)c
| |
Kareus et al., 2012 [11] |
1.71 (1.49–1.96)
|
0.22 (0.09–0.43)
|
0.22 (0.03–0.78)
|
0.55 (0.37–0.79)
| ||||||
Fois et al., 2010 [13] |
0.9 (0.7 to 1.0)
a
| 1.0 (0.8 to 1.1)a
| 1.0 (0.4 to 2.1)a
| 0.9 (0.7 to 1.1)a
|
0.5 (0.4 to 0.7)
a
|
0.7 (0.6 to 0.9)
a
| 0.8 (0.5 to 1.1)a
|
Colon: 0.7 (0.6 to 0.9)
a
| 0.7 (0.4 to 1.2)a
| 0.9 (0.6 to 1.3)a
|
0.7 (0.4 to 1.0)
c
|
0.6 (0.3 to 0.9)
c
|
0.8 (0.1–2.8)
c
|
0.7 (0.5 to 1.0)
c
|
0.5 (0.4 to 0.8)
c
|
0.5 (0.3 to 0.9)
c
|
0.6 (0.3 to 0.9)
c
|
0.5 (0.4 to 0.8)
c
| 0.9 (0.4 to 1.6)c
| 0.8 (0.2 to 2.0)c
| |
Lo et al., 2010 [166] |
0.72 (0.27–1.9)
a
d
0.95 (0.38–2.4)
c
|
1.01 (0.47–2.2)
a
d
| 0.45 (0.05–4.5)a
d
|
1.03 (0.26–4.2)
a
d
| 0.61 (0.11–3.4)a
d
| |||||
0.80 (0.41–1.6) c
| 0.35 (0.10–1.2)c
| 0.73 (0.24–2.2)c
| 0.66 (0.27–1.6)c
| |||||||
Becker et al., 2010 [167] |
0.98 (0.53–1.80)
c
| 0.86 (0.56–1.32)c
|
0.47 (0.25–0.86)
c
| 0.88 (0.48–1.63)c
|
0.33 (0.18–0.61)
c
e
| |||||
Driver et al., 2007 [12] |
0.83 (0.14-4.96)
c
| 0.74 (0.44–1.2)c
| 0.32 (0.07–1.53)c
| 0.68 (0.16–2.84)c
| 0.54 (0.14–2.16)c
| 0.81 (0.22-2.90)c
| ||||
Olsen et al., 2006 [4] | 1.09 (0.90–1.33)a
d
|
1.26 (1.11–1.43)
a
d
|
0.97 (0.55–1.70)
a
d
| 0.99 (0.75–1.31)a
d
|
0.42 (0.22–0.80)
a
d
|
0.71 (0.55–0.91)
a
d
|
1.03 (0.50–2.14)
a
d
|
Colon: 1.29 (1.02–1.63)
a
d
| 0.43 (0.19–1.01)a
d
| Cervix: 0.93 (0.66–1.31)a
d
|
Rectum: 0.98 (0.70–1.36)a
d
| ||||||||||
Olsen et al., 2005 [9] |
1.24 (1.0–1.5)
c
|
1.25 (1.1–1.4)
c
| 1.32 (0.9–1.9)c
|
0.74 (0.6–0.9)
c
|
0.38 (0.3–0.5)
c
|
0.52 (0.4–0.7)
c
| 0.83 (0.6–1.1) c
| Colon: 0.84 (0.7–1.0)c
| Myeloid: 0.69 (0.4–1.2)c
| Cervix: 0.76 (0.4–1.4)c
|
Rectum: 0.89 (0.7–1.1)c
| ||||||||||
Elbaz et al., 2005 [168] |
1.76 (1.07–2.89)
c
| |||||||||
Minami et al., 2000 [169] |
5.49 (1.10–16.03)
| |||||||||
Moller et al., 1995 [10] | 1.20 (0.9– 1.5)c
| 1.24 (1.0–1.5)c
| 1.61 (0.9–2.7)c
| 0.79 (0.6–1.1)c
|
0.29 (0.2–0.4)
c
|
0.42 (0.2–0.7)
c
| 0.91 (0.6– 1.4)c
| Colon: 0.96 (0.7– 1.2)c
| 0.82 (0.4–1.4)c
| Cervix: 0.86 (0.3– 1.9)c
|
Rectum: 0.98 (0.7–1.4)c
| Corpus: 0.89 (0.4– 1.6)c
|
PD and melanoma
Melanoma risk in PD patients | ||
---|---|---|
Relative risk | Measure of association, 95 % confidence interval | Study/Subjects |
3.6 (2.2–5.6)
b [170] | National Institutes of Health Exploratory Trials in PD Long-term Study 1 (NET-PD) | |
2.24 (1.21–4.17)
b [171] | North American PD patients vs. US Surveillance Epidemiology and End Results cancer database, American Academy of Dermatology skin cancer screening programs | |
20.9 (9.6–39.7)
b [172] | Parkinson Research Examination of CEP-1347 Trial (PRECEPT) | |
1.95 (1.4–2.6)
b [9] | Danish National Hospital Register, Danish Cancer Registry | |
1.70 (0.62–4.67)b [167] | UK General Practice Research Database | |
Oxford Record Linkage Study | ||
1.96 (1.1–3.2)
b [10] | Danish National Hospital Register, Danish Cancer Registry, Danish Register of Deaths | |
1.95 (1.44–2.59) [11] | Utah Population Database, US Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results | |
1.41 (1.09–1.80)
b [15] | Danish National Hospital Register, Danish Cancer Registry | |
6.15 (1.77–21.37)
b [12] | US Physicians Health Study | |
Odds ratio |
1.44 (1.03–2.01)
a [4] | Danish National Hospital Register, Danish Cancer Registry |
1.5 (0.40–5.2)a1.6 (0.71–3.6)b [166] | Parkinsonism Epidemiology at Kaiser (PEAK) | |
PD risk in melanoma patients | ||
Mortality ratio |
266.3 (222–317) [173] | Australian National Cancer Statistics Clearing House |
Relative risk |
1.65 (1.22–2.19) [11] | Utah Population Database, US Surveillance, Epidemiology and End Results |
Genetic determinants and associated cellular processes shared in PD and cancer
SNCA
PARK2
PARK8
Ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM) and p53
Phosphatase and tensin homolog (PTEN) and putative kinase 1 (PINK1)
Melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R)
Other neurodegenerative diseases and cancers
Gene/Protein | Biological functions | Changes in neurodegeneration | Implicated cancers |
---|---|---|---|
SNCA/Alpha-synuclein | |||
PARK8/LRRK2 | |||
PARK2/Parkin | |||
PARK6/PINK1 | |||
PARK7/DJ-1 | |||
MAPT/Tau | hyperphosphorylated tau, major component of neurofibrillary tangles; synapse degeneration [223] | ||
APP/APP | mutations lead to Aβ peptide and amyloid plaques [229] |
Gene/Protein | Biological functions | Association with Cancers | Roles in neurodegeneration |
---|---|---|---|
TP53/p53 | transcriptional factor, regulates DNA repair, cell cycle control, apoptosis [115] | tumor suppressor [232] | acts as protective factor by interacting with PD or AD related proteins via cell cycle and apoptosis signaling [122] |
ATM/ATM | mutations lead to AT, inactivation causes cerebellar degeneration [104] | ||
PTEN/PTEN | |||
MC1R/MC1R | main pigmentation gene [148] |